This thesis focuses on tactile perception and aims at a comprehensive analysis of its characteristics over the time-course of various goal-directed movements. Tactile perception is assessed by means of discrimination and detection paradigms, as well as event-related potentials (ERPs). The main question investigated throughout the thesis is: ‘What changes in tactile perception, if any, take place over the time course of a goal-directed movement?’ In Chapter 2, the mechanisms related to such identified changes are examined: a facilitatory one – attention, and an inhibitory one – suppression. The experiment in Chapter 3 tests, at a brain level, amongst several explanations of the experimental results outlined in Chapter 2: timing-based, effector-based, and modality-based attentional/suppressive influences. In Chapter 4, other naturalistic movements are investigated (i.e., the movements involved in juggling and throwing/catching a basketball). The results indicate a lack of facilitation in the processing of tactile information during the preparatory phase of the movement. Furthermore, differential changes are identified in tactile perception over the execution phase of the movement: At a behavioural level, tactile sensitivity significantly declines over the execution phase of the movement (though the detection of incoming tactile stimulation is enhanced), while at a neuronal level the same period exhibits significantly enhanced responses to somatosensory stimulation. The experiments reported here thus bring evidence in favour of a dissociation between detecting and discriminating what is felt while moving. These results suggest that the quality of what is felt while moving may not be important for movement and, at the same time, that different pathways in the brain may be responsible for detecting and discriminating what is felt over the time course of a goal-directed movement. Based on these findings, in Chapter 5, the implications of these results are discussed and directions for further research are outlined.

The term 'crossmodal correspondence' refers to the tendency for people to match information across the senses. In this thesis, the associations between taste/flavour (tastants and words) information with shapes and colours is investigated. Furthermore, such correspondences are addressed in the context of multisensory packaging design. The focus in this thesis is on the way in which taste/flavour information can be communicated by means of the visual elements of product packaging. Through a series of experiments, I demonstrate that people associate tastes and the roundness/angularity of shapes, and that taste quality, hedonics, and intensity influence such correspondences. However, packaging roundness/angularity does not seem to drive these associations. Additionally, I demonstrate that culture and context systematically influence colour/flavour associations. Importantly, the results reported in this thesis suggest that taste/shape correspondences can influence taste expectations as a function of the visual attributes of product packaging. The results reported here also reveal that colour can influence the classification of, and search for, flavour information on a product’s packaging. It turns out that the strength of the association between a flavour category and a colour is crucial to such an effect. The implications of these findings are discussed in light of the theories of crossmodal correspondences, its applications, and directions for future research.

O objetivo foi investigar como a natureza do reforçador afeta o comportamento humano em FI após diferentes histórias de reforço. Universitários foram expostos inicialmente a um de três programas de reforço: FR 40, DRL 20 s ou FI 10 s por três sessões de 15 minutos cada. As contingências de reforço foram programadas com o software ProgRef e a conseqüência para a resposta de pressionar um botão era pontos. Para alguns participantes os pontos eram trocados por fotocópias (Condição 1), para outros os pontos eram trocados por dinheiro (Condição 2), enquanto para outros os pontos não eram trocados por nada (Condição 3). Subseqüentemente, os participantes com história de FR e DRL foram expostos a um programa de reforço em FI 10 s e os participantes submetidos inicialmente ao FI 10 s tiveram o parâmetro do FI alterado para 5, 20 ou 30 s, por três sessões de 15 minutos cada. Os participantes da Condição 3-Pontos, expostos a histórias de responder em FR ou DRL, foram submetidos a cinco sessões de Extinção após as sessões de FI. Os participantes expostos ao FR apresentaram um padrão de responder em taxa alta e constante independentemente do tipo de reforçador utilizado. Quando a contingência mudou de FR para FI a taxa de respostas permaneceu alta para os participantes das Condições 1-Fotocópia e Condição 2-Dinheiro, mas diminuiu para a maioria dos participantes da Condição 3-Pontos. Os participantes expostos inicialmente ao DRL apresentaram um responder em taxa baixa tanto sob a contingência de DRL quanto sob a de FI subseqüente, independentemente da condição de reforço. Apesar desse efeito de persistência comportamental, houve uma diminuição no IRT quando a contingência mudou, o que sugere que o responder era controlado também pela contingência de FI presente. O tipo de reforçador empregado parece ter afetado a probabilidade de que os participantes expostos inicialmente a um programa de reforço em FI 10 s exibissem uma taxa de respostas alta (participantes da Condição 2-Dinheiro) ou baixa (participantes da Condição 3-Pontos). O tipo de reforçador empregado parece ter afetado também o padrão de responder dos participantes quando a parâmetro do FI mudou de 10 para 5, 20 ou 30 segundos. O padrão de responder da maioria dos participantes das Condições 1 e 3 (Fotocópia e Pontos, respectivamente) mudou quando o parâmetro do FI foi alterado, enquanto que o padrão dos participantes da Condição 2-Dinheiro permaneceu o mesmo. Quando a contingência de reforço dos participantes da Condição 3-Pontos foi alterada de FI para extinção houve uma mudança no padrão comportamental tanto dos participantes que tinham história de responder sob FR quanto daqueles com história de responder em DRL. Tomados em conjunto os resultados sugerem que: (a) o comportamento dos participantes foi controlado tanto pela história de reforço quanto pelas contingências presentes; (b) a natureza do reforçador empregado pode favorecer o responder em taxa alta e constante sob FI – tanto após exposição a uma contingência de FR quanto quando o FI é programado desde o início (i.e., sem história experimental prévia a nenhuma outra contingência de reforço). Os resultados do presente estudo assemelham-se àqueles obtidos em outros estudos com organismos humanos e não-humanos respondendo sob programas de reforço e sugerem que as diferenças entre o comportamento de humanos e não-humanos sob programas de reforço podem ser atribuídas tanto à história de condicionamento quanto a diferenças de procedimento entre os estudos com humanos e não-humanos. Os resultados também sugerem que a natureza do reforçador é uma variável importante para modular os efeitos da história experimental sobre o comportamento de seres humanos. / In the present study it was investigated how the nature of reinforcer affects the human behavior on FI reinforcement schedule under different histories of reinforcement. College students were initially exposed to one of three reinforcement schedules: FR 40, DRL 20 s or FI 10 s for 15 minutes each. A computer software, ProgRef, was used to program contingencies of reinforcement. So, if the subject gave a click on the left button of mouse, a number correspondent to the number of reinforced response pop out on the monitor screen. That number was equivalent to points, and some students could exchange their points for photocopies (Condition 1), other for money (Condition 2), and other could not exchange for anything (Condition 3). Later, students whose behaviors have been reinforced in FR and DRL schedules (histories) went to a FI 10 s reinforcement schedule and the ones who had already been exposed to the FI 10 s had their FI parameter altered to 5, 20 or 30 s during three sessions of 15 min each. Before being exposed to histories of responding in FR or DRL, Condition 3-Points participants were exposed to five Extinction sessions after being exposed to FI 10 s sessions. All students exposed to FR had high rates of responding, independently of the nature of reinforcer. When the contingencies changed from FR to FI, response rates remained high in the Conditions 1 and 2 (Photocopies and Money), but it deeply decreased in the Condition 3. Students exposed to DRL history presented a low rate of response under both DRL and FI contingencies, independently of the nature of reinforcement. Despite this behavioral persistence effect, the IRT decreased when contingency changed from DRL 20 s to FI 10 s. This suggests that the pattern responding was also under controlling of contingency of reinforcement current. The nature of reinforcer affected the students’ behavior in FI 10 s even then had no previous experimental history. A high rates of responses was produced by students in the Condition 2-Money while a low rates of responses was produced by most students in the Condition 3-Points. The nature of reinforcer also influenced the students’ behaviors pattern as FI value changed from 10 to 5, 20 or 30 s. Results show that students’ behaviors pattern changed as FI value was altered as in the sequence before in the Conditions 1 and 3. However, it did not change at the same way as FI value was altered in the Condition 2. As contingencies of reinforcement, in the Condition 3, were altered from FI to extinction schedules, subjects’ behaviors under FR and DRL schedules showed a different pattern. Taken as a whole the results suggests that: first, participants’ behavior seemed to be controlled either by reinforcement history or by contingency of reinforcement; Second, the nature of reinforcement may be produced both high and low rates of response under FI – both after FR contingency exposure and when FI is programmed from the beginning (i.e., with no previous experimental history to no other reinforcement contingency). The results of the present study are in agreement to most those studies carried out with human and non-human responding under reinforcement schedules and suggest that the discrepancies between the behavior of humans and non-humans on schedules of reinforcement maybe attributed to both conditioning history and procedural differences between human and non-human research procedures. Also, the results here presented suggest that the nature of reinforcer is an important variable to modulate the effects of experimental history on the human behaviors.

Neurocognitive and functional outcome deficits have long been acknowledged in schizophrenia and are considered a core feature of the disorder. Neurocognition has been found to account for functional disability to a greater extent than psychopathology however much of the variance in functional outcome still remains unexplained. How functional outcome is measured also requires clarification. By investigating the relationship between neurocognition and functional outcome in First-Episode Psychosis (FEP), much can be learnt about the trajectory of disability and the course of illness in schizophrenia. Metacognition, or thinking about thinking, has been proposed as a mediating variable between neurocognition and functional outcome. Despite different theoretical backgrounds, authors generally converge on there being higher-order, explicit, conscious metacognitive knowledge and lower-order, implicit metacognitive processes. How these relate to each other requires clarification. The prefrontal cortex (PFC) has been implicated in higher order thought and metacognitive processing, and deficits have been observed in PFC Grey Matter (GM) volume in schizophrenia. These metacognitive deficits may contribute to the relationship between cognitive ability and community functioning. A preliminary meta-analysis demonstrated that a moderate effect size is found between neurocognition and metacognition and a moderate effect size exists between metacognition and functional outcome. The present thesis investigated whether metacognition mediates the relationship between neurocognition and functional outcome in FEP (N=80). Path models were created to investigate the different relationships between neurocognition, metacognition and both capacity to perform everyday tasks and objective functioning in the community. A secondary Voxel-based Morphometry (VBM) analysis was also conducted investigating perceptual metacognitive accuracy and its relationship to GM volume in both FEP (N=41) and a matched healthy control sample (N=21). Current findings support the model that metacognition and negative symptoms mediate the relationship between neurocognition and functional capacity in FEP. Path models also demonstrated a significant mediation effect of metacognition between neorocognition and objective function, and functional capacity and objective function. Significant group differences were found between FEP and controls in perceptual metacognitive accuracy however no significant relationship was found between metacognition and GM volume in the PFC. The present thesis suggests that metacognitive deficits are present at first episode and may account for the relationship between cognitive ability and functioning in the community. Findings also suggest that cognitive remediation programmes may wish to focus on metacognition to maximise the transfer of cognitive skills to community functioning. The findings also suggest the presence of two metacognitive processing routes; explicit, declarable, higher-order knowledge and implicit, intuition-based, lower-order experience which can be accounted for by Nelson and Narens (1990) metacognitive model.

Dopamine and 3',5'-cyclic adenosine monophosphate-regulated neuronal phosphoprotein (DARPP-32) is a critical mediator of neuroplasticity in striatal medium spiny neurons (MSNs). The work presented in this thesis used a global gene knockout (KO) construct to investigate the role of DARPP-32 in reward-based learning and performance. Global deletion of the DARPP-32 gene disturbed performance during the intertemporal (delay) discounting procedure. DARPP-32 KO mice were less sensitive than their wildtype (WT) littermates during long delays to reinforcement. In comparison to WT mice, DARPP-32 KO mice also developed a risk-sensitive pattern of choices during a probability discounting task. Unlike the effects of DARPP-32 deletion on reinforcement along dimensions of time and risk, DARPP-32 knockout did not affect the degree of effort that subjects were willing to invest during food-reinforced progressive ratio testing. DARPP-32 KO mice also failed to exhibit Pavlovian-to-instrumental transfer and this impairment could not be rescued by administering methylphenidate prior to test. Finally, DARPP-32 KO mice were indistinguishable from WT mice during an amphetamine psychomotor sensitisation study. Overall, the data in this thesis suggest DARPP-32 is involved in adaptive reward-based learning and performance.

O objetivo foi investigar como a natureza do reforçador afeta o comportamento humano em FI após diferentes histórias de reforço. Universitários foram expostos inicialmente a um de três programas de reforço: FR 40, DRL 20 s ou FI 10 s por três sessões de 15 minutos cada. As contingências de reforço foram programadas com o software ProgRef e a conseqüência para a resposta de pressionar um botão era pontos. Para alguns participantes os pontos eram trocados por fotocópias (Condição 1), para outros os pontos eram trocados por dinheiro (Condição 2), enquanto para outros os pontos não eram trocados por nada (Condição 3). Subseqüentemente, os participantes com história de FR e DRL foram expostos a um programa de reforço em FI 10 s e os participantes submetidos inicialmente ao FI 10 s tiveram o parâmetro do FI alterado para 5, 20 ou 30 s, por três sessões de 15 minutos cada. Os participantes da Condição 3-Pontos, expostos a histórias de responder em FR ou DRL, foram submetidos a cinco sessões de Extinção após as sessões de FI. Os participantes expostos ao FR apresentaram um padrão de responder em taxa alta e constante independentemente do tipo de reforçador utilizado. Quando a contingência mudou de FR para FI a taxa de respostas permaneceu alta para os participantes das Condições 1-Fotocópia e Condição 2-Dinheiro, mas diminuiu para a maioria dos participantes da Condição 3-Pontos. Os participantes expostos inicialmente ao DRL apresentaram um responder em taxa baixa tanto sob a contingência de DRL quanto sob a de FI subseqüente, independentemente da condição de reforço. Apesar desse efeito de persistência comportamental, houve uma diminuição no IRT quando a contingência mudou, o que sugere que o responder era controlado também pela contingência de FI presente. O tipo de reforçador empregado parece ter afetado a probabilidade de que os participantes expostos inicialmente a um programa de reforço em FI 10 s exibissem uma taxa de respostas alta (participantes da Condição 2-Dinheiro) ou baixa (participantes da Condição 3-Pontos). O tipo de reforçador empregado parece ter afetado também o padrão de responder dos participantes quando a parâmetro do FI mudou de 10 para 5, 20 ou 30 segundos. O padrão de responder da maioria dos participantes das Condições 1 e 3 (Fotocópia e Pontos, respectivamente) mudou quando o parâmetro do FI foi alterado, enquanto que o padrão dos participantes da Condição 2-Dinheiro permaneceu o mesmo. Quando a contingência de reforço dos participantes da Condição 3-Pontos foi alterada de FI para extinção houve uma mudança no padrão comportamental tanto dos participantes que tinham história de responder sob FR quanto daqueles com história de responder em DRL. Tomados em conjunto os resultados sugerem que: (a) o comportamento dos participantes foi controlado tanto pela história de reforço quanto pelas contingências presentes; (b) a natureza do reforçador empregado pode favorecer o responder em taxa alta e constante sob FI – tanto após exposição a uma contingência de FR quanto quando o FI é programado desde o início (i.e., sem história experimental prévia a nenhuma outra contingência de reforço). Os resultados do presente estudo assemelham-se àqueles obtidos em outros estudos com organismos humanos e não-humanos respondendo sob programas de reforço e sugerem que as diferenças entre o comportamento de humanos e não-humanos sob programas de reforço podem ser atribuídas tanto à história de condicionamento quanto a diferenças de procedimento entre os estudos com humanos e não-humanos. Os resultados também sugerem que a natureza do reforçador é uma variável importante para modular os efeitos da história experimental sobre o comportamento de seres humanos. / In the present study it was investigated how the nature of reinforcer affects the human behavior on FI reinforcement schedule under different histories of reinforcement. College students were initially exposed to one of three reinforcement schedules: FR 40, DRL 20 s or FI 10 s for 15 minutes each. A computer software, ProgRef, was used to program contingencies of reinforcement. So, if the subject gave a click on the left button of mouse, a number correspondent to the number of reinforced response pop out on the monitor screen. That number was equivalent to points, and some students could exchange their points for photocopies (Condition 1), other for money (Condition 2), and other could not exchange for anything (Condition 3). Later, students whose behaviors have been reinforced in FR and DRL schedules (histories) went to a FI 10 s reinforcement schedule and the ones who had already been exposed to the FI 10 s had their FI parameter altered to 5, 20 or 30 s during three sessions of 15 min each. Before being exposed to histories of responding in FR or DRL, Condition 3-Points participants were exposed to five Extinction sessions after being exposed to FI 10 s sessions. All students exposed to FR had high rates of responding, independently of the nature of reinforcer. When the contingencies changed from FR to FI, response rates remained high in the Conditions 1 and 2 (Photocopies and Money), but it deeply decreased in the Condition 3. Students exposed to DRL history presented a low rate of response under both DRL and FI contingencies, independently of the nature of reinforcement. Despite this behavioral persistence effect, the IRT decreased when contingency changed from DRL 20 s to FI 10 s. This suggests that the pattern responding was also under controlling of contingency of reinforcement current. The nature of reinforcer affected the students’ behavior in FI 10 s even then had no previous experimental history. A high rates of responses was produced by students in the Condition 2-Money while a low rates of responses was produced by most students in the Condition 3-Points. The nature of reinforcer also influenced the students’ behaviors pattern as FI value changed from 10 to 5, 20 or 30 s. Results show that students’ behaviors pattern changed as FI value was altered as in the sequence before in the Conditions 1 and 3. However, it did not change at the same way as FI value was altered in the Condition 2. As contingencies of reinforcement, in the Condition 3, were altered from FI to extinction schedules, subjects’ behaviors under FR and DRL schedules showed a different pattern. Taken as a whole the results suggests that: first, participants’ behavior seemed to be controlled either by reinforcement history or by contingency of reinforcement; Second, the nature of reinforcement may be produced both high and low rates of response under FI – both after FR contingency exposure and when FI is programmed from the beginning (i.e., with no previous experimental history to no other reinforcement contingency). The results of the present study are in agreement to most those studies carried out with human and non-human responding under reinforcement schedules and suggest that the discrepancies between the behavior of humans and non-humans on schedules of reinforcement maybe attributed to both conditioning history and procedural differences between human and non-human research procedures. Also, the results here presented suggest that the nature of reinforcer is an important variable to modulate the effects of experimental history on the human behaviors.

Research has revealed that current antidepressant treatment is less than adequate at alleviating behavioral endophenotypes associated with major depressive disorder (MDD) and there is a need for appropriate animal models to validate novel antidepressant pharmacological targets. In the present study, we wished to establish an ethologically relevant social defeat stress model in combination with a chronic unpredictable stress model, to more accurately mimic severe stress that is common in MDD. Before each day of the introduction of the stressor, animals were given saline or a 40 mg/kg dose of 3-aminobenzamide (3-AB), a poly ADP-ribose (PARP) inhibitor. PARP is a DNA repair enzyme that is increased in activity in response to DNA oxidation, which is elevated in the prefrontal cortical white matter in MDD post-mortem donors. One stressed group was given the common antidepressant fluoxetine (10mg/kg) to serve as a positive control. Results of this study demonstrated that 3-AB alleviated decreases in sucrose preference, a natural reward, along with avoidance on a social interaction test given at the end of social defeat. Preliminary telemetry readings indicated 3-AB was able to significantly decrease heart rate and blood pressure in response to SDS as compared to saline treated rats. Therefore, it appears that PARP inhibition alleviated behavioral endophenotypes associated with stress and represents a new pharmacological treatment for MDD in humans.

abstract: Previous research has shown that training visual attention can improve golf putting performance. A technique called the Quiet Eye focuses on increasing a player’s length of fixation between the ball and the hole. When putting, the final fixation is made on the ball before executing the stroke leaving players to rely on their memory of the hole’s distance and location. The present study aimed to test the effectiveness of Quiet Eye training for final fixation on the hole. Twelve Arizona State University (ASU) students with minimal golf experience putted while wearing eye tracking glasses under the following conditions: from three feet with final fixation on the ball, from six feet with final fixation on the ball, from three feet with final fixation on the hole and from six feet with final fixation on the hole. Participant’s performance was measured before training, following quiet eye training, and under simulated pressure conditions. Putting performance was not significantly affected by final fixation for all conditions. The number of total putts made was significantly greater when putting from three feet for all conditions. Future research should test the effects of this training with expert golfers whose processes are more automatic compared to novices and can afford to look at the hole while putting. / Dissertation/Thesis / Masters Thesis Human Systems Engineering 2019

Recognition memory - a type of episodic memory in long term memory - is known in the literature to be affected by emotion, aging and the modality of the presented stimuli. The major aim of this study was to investigate whether emotional stimuli enhances recognition memory. Another goal was to observe whether modality and aging effects are present and differentiable in a non-Western subject sample. In literature, emotion studies were based on mainly two dimensions of emotions: valence and arousal. However, the contribution of these two dimensions to the enhancement of recognition memory still needs clarification. The present study investigated specifically the effect of valence on recognition memory. Moreover, the experimental manipulations of this study allowed observing the effect of valence on recognition memory due to normal aging. Since modality of the presented stimuli is a major confounding factor on recognition, separate experiments involving visual and verbal stimuli were designed. Pictures and words were selected on the basis of valence and arousal ratings. The stimulus set of the visual recognition memory task consisted of the pictures selected from the International Affective Picture System (IAPS) (Lang et al., 2005). The stimulus set of the verbal recognition memory task was constructed from partially standardized material for affective norms of Turkish emotional words (METU TEW), which was developed as a part of this study. METU TEW allowed selecting words with positive, neutral and negative valence while controlling arousal. The results replicated two findings reported in the literature: (1) younger adults recognized more accurately than older adults / (2) recognition memory was enhanced for visual items regardless of age and valence. Interestingly, this study revealed that recognition memory was not enhanced for emotional stimuli varying only on the valence dimension. More specifically, there was a decline in recognition memory for positive items and no change was observed for negative items, regardless of age. Further analysis also revealed that there may be differential effects of abstractness and concreteness on verbal recognition memory in aging.

<p> The central topic of this research is an examination of the philosophical assumptions of depth psychology as they relate to splitting in depth psychology. The intention of the researcher was to examine this topic from multiple perspectives. The researcher utilized a qualitative methodology, dialogical hermeneutics, to compare the influences and assumptions of the differing schools of depth psychology. </p><p> Depth psychology is the study of mental functioning that includes and values unconscious mental processes. Over the past 100 years, numerous splits, dissensions, and modifications have occurred. Splits have occurred between individuals and between factions within institutes, resulting in an ever-increasing plurality of depth psychological training schools. Such infighting has resulted in an erosion of prestige, which has left the discipline in danger of dissolution. </p><p> The primary questions of this research were these: What are the fundamental philosophical assumptions underlying depth psychology in general and do these philosophical assumptions contribute to splitting within the field of depth psychology? </p><p> One of the most basic assumptions of depth psychology held that nature is dualistic and that human beings are divided within and amongst themselves, which led to a belief in the reality of opposites, an ever-present ontological struggle between polar forces. This assumption was consistently maintained in Jung's psychological system and present but inconsistently held by Freud. Jung believed that there was a fundamental unity in nature that was divided. Freud did not. Jung believed that the problem of the opposites could be transcended, leading to a higher level of integration and assimilation. Freud did not. Freud's influences flowed from objective, deterministic, and rational, materialistic assumptions, whereas Jung's epistemology was more influenced by the idealistic and romantic traditions, which emphasized a subjective, irrational, and teleological approach to knowledge. Freud understood splitting as simply conflictual, whereas Jung saw splitting as conflictual but also purposive, leading towards wholeness. Their positions reflected a philosophical split in the culture that has persisted since classical times, between objective and subjective approaches to understanding reality. Their respective personalities pulled them toward opposing sides of this classic ontological divide. </p><p> The researcher concluded that knowledge inevitably and necessarily develops through conflict, best approached with awareness and tempered with tolerance. </p>