Gene expression profiles are some of the most abundant sources of data about the cellular state of a collection of cells in an organism. Comparison of the expression profiles of multiple samples allows biologists to find associations between observations at the molecular level and the phenotype of the samples. A key challenge is to distinguish variation in expression due to biological factors of interest from variation due to confounding factors that can arise for unrelated technical or biological reasons. This thesis presents models that can explicitly adjust the comparison of expression profiles to account for specific types of confounding factors. One such confounding factor arises when comparing tissue-specific expression profiles across multiple organisms to identify differences in expression that are indicative of changes in gene function. When the organisms are separated by long evolutionary distances, tissue functions may be re-distributed and introduce expression changes unrelated to changes in gene function. We developed Brownian Factor Phylogenetic Analysis, a model that can account for such re-distribution of function, and demonstrate that removing this confounding factor improves tasks such as predicting gene function. Another confounding factor arises because current protocols for expression profiling require RNA extracts from multiple cells. Often biological samples are heterogeneous mixtures of multiple cell types, so the measured expression profile is an average of the RNA levels of the constituent cells. When the biological sample contains both cells of interest and nuisance cells, the confounding expression from the nuisance cells can mask the expression of the cells of interest. We developed ISOLATE and ISOpure, two models for addressing the heterogeneity of tumor samples. We demonstrated that modeling tumor heterogeneity leads to an improvement in two tasks: identifying the site of origin of metastatic tumors, and predicting the risk of death of lung cancer patients.

Gene expression profiles are some of the most abundant sources of data about the cellular state of a collection of cells in an organism. Comparison of the expression profiles of multiple samples allows biologists to find associations between observations at the molecular level and the phenotype of the samples. A key challenge is to distinguish variation in expression due to biological factors of interest from variation due to confounding factors that can arise for unrelated technical or biological reasons. This thesis presents models that can explicitly adjust the comparison of expression profiles to account for specific types of confounding factors. One such confounding factor arises when comparing tissue-specific expression profiles across multiple organisms to identify differences in expression that are indicative of changes in gene function. When the organisms are separated by long evolutionary distances, tissue functions may be re-distributed and introduce expression changes unrelated to changes in gene function. We developed Brownian Factor Phylogenetic Analysis, a model that can account for such re-distribution of function, and demonstrate that removing this confounding factor improves tasks such as predicting gene function. Another confounding factor arises because current protocols for expression profiling require RNA extracts from multiple cells. Often biological samples are heterogeneous mixtures of multiple cell types, so the measured expression profile is an average of the RNA levels of the constituent cells. When the biological sample contains both cells of interest and nuisance cells, the confounding expression from the nuisance cells can mask the expression of the cells of interest. We developed ISOLATE and ISOpure, two models for addressing the heterogeneity of tumor samples. We demonstrated that modeling tumor heterogeneity leads to an improvement in two tasks: identifying the site of origin of metastatic tumors, and predicting the risk of death of lung cancer patients.

Solute carriers (SLCs) constitute the largest family of membrane-bound transporter proteins in humans, and they convey transport of nutrients, ions, drugs and waste over cellular membranes via facilitative diffusion, co-transport or exchange. Several SLCs are associated with diseases and their location in membranes and specific substrate transport makes them excellent as drug targets. However, as 30 % of the 430 identified SLCs are still orphans, there are yet numerous opportunities to explain diseases and discover potential drug targets. Among the novel proteins are 29 atypical SLCs of major facilitator superfamily (MFS) type. These share evolutionary history with the remaining SLCs, but are orphans regarding expression, structure and/or function. They are not classified into any of the existing 52 SLC families. The overall aim in this thesis was to study the atypical SLCs with a focus on their phylogenetic clustering, evolutionary conservation, structure, protein expression in mouse brains and if and how their gene expressions were affected upon changed food intake. In Papers I-III, the focus was on specific proteins, MFSD5 and MFSD11 (Paper I), MFSD1 and MFSD3 (Paper II), and MFSD4A and MFSD9 (Paper III). They all shared neuronal expression, and their transcription levels were altered in several brain areas after subjecting mice to food deprivation or a high-fat diet. In Paper IV, the 29 atypical SLCs of MFS type were examined. They were divided into 15 families, based on phylogenetic analyses and sequence identities, to facilitate functional studies. Their sequence relationships with other SLCs were also established. Some of the proteins were found to be well conserved with orthologues down to nematodes and insects, whereas others emerged at first in vertebrates. The atypical SLCs of MFS type were predicted to have the common MFS structure, composed of 12 transmembrane segments. With single-cell RNA sequencing and in situ proximity ligation assay, co-expression of atypical SLCs was analysed to get a comprehensive understanding of how membrane-bound transporters interact.   In conclusion, the atypical SLCs of MFS type are suggested to be novel SLC transporters, involved in maintaining nutrient homeostasis through substrate transport.

La régulation de la transcription est l‟un des processus cellulaires des plus fondamentaux et constitue la première étape menant à l‟expression protéique. Son altération a des effets sur l‟homéostasie cellulaire et est associée au développement de maladies telles que le cancer. Il est donc crucial de comprendre les règles fondamentales de la fonction cellulaire afin de mieux cibler les traitements pour les maladies. La transcription d‟un gène peut se produire selon l‟un des deux modes fondamentaux de transcription : en continu ou en burst. Le premier est décrit comme un processus aléatoire et stochastique qui suit une distribution de Poisson. À chaque initiation de la transcription, indépendante de la précédente, un seul transcrit est produit. L‟expression en burst se produit lorsque le promoteur est activé pour une courte période de temps pendant laquelle plusieurs transcrits naissants sont produits. Apportant la plus grande variabilité au sein d‟une population isogénique, il est représenté par une distribution bimodale, où une sous-population n‟exprime pas le gène en question, alors que le reste de la population l‟exprime fortement. Les gènes des eucaryotes inférieurs sont pour la plupart exprimés de manière continuelle, alors que les gènes des eucaryotes supérieurs le sont plutôt en burst. Le but de ce projet est d‟étudier comment l‟expression des gènes a évolué et si la transcription aléatoire, ou de Poisson, est une propriété des eucaryotes inférieurs et si ces patrons ont changé avec la complexité des organismes et des génomes. Par la technique de smFISH, nous avons étudié de manière systématique quatre gènes évolutivement conservés (mdn1+, PRP8/spp42+, pol1+ et cdc13+) qui sont continuellement transcrits dans la levure S. cerevisiae. Nous avons observé que le mode d‟expression est gène-et-organisme spécifique puisque prp8 est exprimé de manière continuelle dans la levure S. pombe, alors que les autres gènes seraient plutôt exprimés en légers burst. / Regulating transcription is one of the most fundamental cellular processes and the first step of a long cascade of processes leading to protein expression. Altering transcriptional output often has major effects on cellular homeostasis and is associated with many disease phenotypes, such as cancer. Understanding the fundamental rules governing transcription regulation is therefore instrumental in understanding cellular function as well as in finding disease treatments. Transcription of a gene can occur through two fundamental different modes: “continuous” or “bursting”. Continuous transcription is defined as stochastic process where a promoter is always in its “on” state and each initiation event is independent of the previous. Bursting transcription occurs when a promoter is activated for a short time and multiple mRNAs are produced during the “on” state, followed by long periods of transcription inactivity. It leads to greater variability in an isogenic population, as expression is often bimodal as a sub-population does not express a given gene. Bursting expression is frequently observed in higher eukaryotes, while a continuous pattern seems to be common in lower eukaryotes. The goal of this project is to study how gene expression patterns evolved. We investigate whether Poisson-like transcription is a property of lower eukaryotes and whether transcription patterns have changed when organisms and genomes evolved into more complex systems. Using smFISH, we have systematically determined expression patterns of four evolutionarily conserved genes; mdn1+, PRP8/spp42+, pol1+ and cdc13+, previously shown to be continuously expressed in the yeast S. cerevisiae. Expression was studied in the yeast S. pombe, as an example for another lower eukaryote as well as in human cell-lines. We observe that expression patterns are organism-and-gene specific suggesting that expression patterns have evolved to fulfill gene specific functions.

No description available.

L’immunité végétale est garantie par plusieurs niveaux d’action dont l’interconnexion et les voies signalétiques sont peu élucidées. Deux des trois couches de défenses immunitaires sont constituées par les protéines NB-LRR (Nucleotide-Binding Leucine-Rich Repeat), encodées par les gènes de Résistance (gènes R), et l’interférence à ARN (iARN). L’étude de la voie de signalisation induite par l’activation des NB-LRR en réponse à la reconnaissance (directe ou indirecte) de protéines pathogéniques est très compliquée, car cette réponse culmine, dans la majeure partie des cas, en un phénotype macroscopique de mort cellulaire dénommée Réponse hypersensible (HR), empêchant toute analyse biochimique. Récemment, il a été montré chez Nicotiana benthamiana que la réponse antivirale déclenchée par la protéine NB-LRR N, qui n’induit pas de HR lorsqu’activée, implique la répression de la traduction de l’ARN viral. Dans ce système, la résistance conférée par N est dépendante de la protéine AGO4 dont le rôle dans l’iARN est assez bien défini. En effet, bien que l’ARN viral se multiplie à l’intérieur de la cellule hôte, il n’est pas associé à la machinerie de traduction et ne produit donc plus de virions. Cependant, nous ne connaissons pas à ce jour les évènements de régulation de l’expression génique responsables de ce mécanisme de défense. Les études du transcriptome immunitaire chez Arabidopsis thaliana n’ont révélé que peu de candidats majeurs impliqués dans la réponse NB-LRR, alors que certaines études mettent en lumière l’implication de la régulation de l’expression génique, au niveau traductionnel, dans la réponse immunitaire. En s’appuyant sur les travaux de Bhattacharjee et al. (2009), nous avons entrepris de caractériser, au niveau cellulaire, la répression de la traduction de l’ARN viral pendant la réponse induite par N. Nous observons, dans un système inductible permettant de déclencher la réponse immunitaire après l’établissement de l’infection virale, une large formation de granules à ARN appelés PBs (Processing Bodies), en conséquence de l’inhibition spécifique de la traduction de l’ARN viral. Le mécanisme effecteur de cette répression est différent des mécanismes de répression traductionnelle mis en place en réponse à la perception de stress tel que les UVs, ou de l’induction des mécanismes de répression traductionnelle par l’iARN. De plus, des plantes d’Arabidopsis mutantes pour une protéine fonctionnant dans les PBs sont plus résistantes à des bactéries phytopathogènes. D’une façon intéressante, on détecte un niveau d’expression augmenté de certains gènes de défense dans ce mutant, de manière similaire à des mutants d’Arabidopsis compromis dans l’une des voies de dégradation des ARNm. En parallèle, nous avons développé des outils transgéniques pour déterminer si la régulation de la traduction des ARNm de l’hôte, à l’échelle génomique, joue un rôle dans l’établissement de l’immunité. Nous avons généré une lignée d’Arabidsopsis exprimant sous le contrôle d’un promoteur inductible le facteur d’Avirulence (Avr) AvrRpm1, dont la présence est reconnue par la protéine NB-LRR RPM1; en combinaison avec une protéine ribosomale étiquetée nous permettant d’immunopurifier les ribosomes avec les ARNm en cours de traduction. Le séquençage à haut-débit des ARN totaux et des ARNm engagés dans la traduction a révélé que cinq fois plus de gènes sont régulés au niveau traductionnel par rapport au niveau transcriptionnel, après l’induction de la réponse NB-LRR. Une analyse comparée avec les connaissances précédentes a révélé que la réponse NB-LRR induit l’expression de 20% des gènes NB-LRR totaux, qui sont aussi constitutivement exprimés dans des mutants compromis dans certains processus de dégradations des ARNm. Cependant, la réponse NB-LRR induit l’expression de centaines de gènes précédemment impliqués dans les défenses, ce qui n’est pas le cas dans les mutants de dégradation d’ARNm, soulignant ainsi la spécificité de la réponse NB-LRR. Une analyse bio-informatique a déterminé qu’environ cinq cent gènes sont régulés au niveau traductionnel de manière indépendante de leur abondance totale, fournissant une liste de nouveaux candidats potentiellement impliqués dans l’immunité NB-LRR et spécifiquement régulés au niveau traductionnel. Une analyse génétique de certains mutants de ces gènes candidats dans les défenses a été entreprise, et a révélé que des plantes d’Arabidopsis TOR-déficientes ou mutantes pour les gènes CIPK5, CCT2 et BIG possèdent une résistance altérée positivement pour les TOR-déficientes ou négativement pour les autres, par rapport à une plante sauvage. Dans leur ensemble, ces résultats prouvent une grande implication de la régulation de la traduction dans la mise en place de l’immunité végétale.

Mammalian telomeric DNA consists of tandem repeats of the sequence TTAGGG associated with a specialized set of proteins, known collectively as Shelterin. These telosomal proteins protect the ends of chromosomes against end-to-end fusion and degradation. The objective of this project was to investigate whether expression of Shelterin and Shelterin-associated proteins are altered, and influence the protection and maintenance of telomeres, in breast cancer cells. Initial findings showed that most of the Shelterin and Shelterin-associated genes were significantly down-regulated (at the mRNA expression level) in a panel of ten breast cancer cell lines. Epigenetic alterations to DNA (methylation at CpG Islands) and histones can result in altered expression of genes. Further investigations showed that the promoter region of POT1 was partially methylated in the breast cancer cell line, 21NT. To support these observations, a DNA methylation inhibitor, 5-aza-CdR, and a histone deacetylation inhibitor, TSA, were used in an attempt to reactivate the expression of silenced genes. This work generated novel findings. Treatment with 5-aza-CdR and TSA resulted in the highest recovery of TIN2 and POT1 mRNA levels at both short-term (48 and 72 hours) and long-term (3 weeks) treatment of the breast cancer cell line, 21NT cells. In addition, POT1 promoter methylation was analysed before and after treatment of 21NT cells. Bisulphite sequencing data were consistent with the mRNA expression results, showing up-regulation of POT1, as all methylation sites were demethylated after the treatment of 21NT cells with 5-aza-CdR. These studies also showed for the first time that both the short-term (72 hours) and 3 weeks treatment of 21NT cells with 5-aza-CdR was able to increase telomere lengths (using four measurement methods, i.e. TRF, q-PCR, flow-FISH and iQFISH). Breast cancer cell lines expressed low levels of several telosomal mRNAs and that this down-regulation was found to be due in part to promoter methylation. Methylation was shown to be relieved through treatment of the cells with 5-aza-CdR and TSA; specifically, POT1 was shown to be up-regulated to a higher extent compared with other Shelterin genes. Given that previous studies involved over-expression of POT1 in telomerase-positive cells to demonstrate telomere length elongation, we addressed the possibility that over-expression of POT1 may affect telomere length in 21NT breast cancer cells. The results showed that the average telomere length of the POT1 over-expressing clones was increased by 2 to 3 kb compared with 21NT non-transfected and empty vector controls. The study also demonstrated that increased telomere length (by ectopic over-expression of POT1) is not due to a direct effect of telomerase enzyme activity. One explanation for this could be that POT1 may induce a negative regulator of telomerase activity to maintain telomere length. Taken together, the results generated in this project suggest that POT1 may control a localised activation of telomerase enzyme at the telomere end, and regulate stability of the Shelterin complex.

The transmission of Trypanosoma brucei, the causative agent of human African trypanosomiasis, depends upon the development in the bloodstream of 'stumpy forms' from non-transmissible 'slender forms'. In stumpy forms many mRNAs are downregulated and translation is generally repressed. However, a small subset of genes escape this repression and are upregulated, presumably as an adaptation for transmission. To understand the basic of this, regulatory sequences within the 3'UTR of a major stumpy-enriched transcript (an ESAG9 gene) have been characterised. This identified a signal responsible for gene silencing in slender forms and gene activation when cells develop to stumpy forms. An investigation was made of upstream open reading frames (uORFs) as a mechanism for the control of stumpy form gene expression. No evidence was found of uORF control, but one gene investigated was found to produce two transcripts through trans-splicing at different sites. These transcripts, which were found to exhibit some differential abundance between life-cycle stages, would generate a long and short form (from an internal ATG) of the encoded protein. Both are predicted to contain a UBA/TS-N (ubiquitin associated) domain, however, the longer form of the protein is also predicted to contain a transmembrane helix and cleavable signal peptide, suggesting a different localisation. However, ectopic expression of either protein form with a Ty epitope tag resulted in the same protein localisation. Additionally, the transcripts of two translational protein homologues, TbeIF4E4 and TbeIF6, were identified as upregulated in stumpy forms. Radiolabelled-methionine experiments and polysome analysis showed that overexpression or RNAi-mediated ablation of TbeIF6 resulted in a decrease in protein synthesis and decrease in translation. Unlike its archaeal homologue, TbeIF6 protein was not induced by coldshock treatment. Finally, to identify which transcripts escape translational repression in stumpy forms an analysis was made of polysome-associated transcripts by RNA-sequencing. This identified potentially interesting genes for further investigation, and showed that many procyclic-enriched transcripts were also enriched in stumpy form polysomeassociated RNA, confirming these cells as preadapted for transmission. Together, this work has characterised a 3’UTR regulatory element in a stumpy-enriched transcript, examined alternative trans-splicing of another transcript, investigated two translational protein homologues and identified transcripts that escape translational repression in the transmissible life-cycle stage of T. brucei.

Bipolar disorder and recurrent major depression are complex psychiatric illnesses with a substantial, yet unknown genetic component. Genetic studies have identified linkage of bipolar disorder and recurrent major depression with markers on chromosome 4p15-p16 in a large Scottish family and three smaller families. To focus the search for genetic factors for susceptibility to illness two approaches were adopted: a chromosome 4p15-p16 candidate gene study and a whole-genome linkage scan. In the first instance, phosphatidylinositol 4-kinase type-II beta (PI4K2B) was selected as a candidate gene. Analysis of haplotypes in the four linked families identified two regions, both of which were shared by three families. PI4K2B lies within one of these regions. PI4K2B is also a worthy functional candidate as it is a member of the phosphatidylinositol pathway, which is targeted by lithium for therapeutic effect in bipolar disorder. Expression studies at the allele-specific mRNA and protein level were performed in lymphoblastoid cell lines from the large Scottish family. There was no evidence for expression differences between affected and non-affected family members. However, a case-control association study showed preliminary evidence for association of schizophrenia but not bipolar disorder, with tagging single nucleotide polymorphisms from the PI4K2B genomic region. Second, the linkage evidence for bipolar disorder and recurrent major depression in the large Scottish family was re-examined. This was important because additional family members had been recruited and advances in technology made it feasible to cover all chromosome regions more densely than had been possible ten years ago. Stringent genotyping and pedigree error checks were performed to ensure an optimised dataset for analysis. Furthermore, the large family was divided in an informative manner for ease of analysis using both parametric and non-parametric methods, supplemented by haplotype analysis. Genome-wide significant evidence for linkage was observed on chromosome 4p15- p16 and genome-wide suggestive evidence was observed on chromosomes 8p21 and 1p36. The analysis clearly supports the evidence for a susceptibility locus of bipolar disorder and recurrent major depression on chromosome 4p15-p16, while identifying other genetic loci that may confer risk to psychiatric illness.

Deciphering the mechanisms that underlie circuit function in the hippocampal formation is a key challenge for neuroscience. This region, which includes the medial entorhinal cortex (MEC), is critical for spatial learning and episodic memory in humans. Spatially modulated cells in the MEC, the grid cells, provide a topographical representation of space, but we are yet to establish the neuronal properties that underlie this or the contribution that particular cells in different regions of the MEC and hippocampus make to circuit function. This is partially because the specific targeting of the network with genetic tools is complicated by a multitude of cell types with predominantly unknown molecular profiles. To address our limited understanding of the molecular organisation of the MEC, I have characterised how the expression of genes is distributed throughout different layers of the MEC, using a custom-designed resource that facilitates analysis of in situ hybridisation data from the Allen Brain Atlas. Through simultaneous extraction of gene expression data across thousands of 2D aligned images, I reveal striking differences between layers within MEC, demonstrating that layer II contains the highest proportion of genes enriched in a single layer, whereas gene expression is very rarely confined to layer III. Of particular interest, layer II of MEC is highly enriched for Alzheimer’s disease pathway genes, providing insight into its vulnerability as one of the first brain regions to show pathology. I also identify over 1000 genes that are expressed with a dorso-ventral gradient that maps onto the topographic organisation of MEC connectivity, grid cell spatial resolution and synaptic integrative properties of cells. An intriguing group of genes that closely relate circuit activity to gene expression, the plasticity-related activity-dependent genes, often show this pattern of expression. Focussing on the activity-dependent expression of one such activity-regulated, plasticity-related gene, Arc, I provide a novel view of MEC function. During simple novel exploration, Arc expression is up-regulated to a much greater extent in the deep layers of dorsal MEC than in the grid cell-rich superficial layers. By selectively disrupting the predominant hippocampal input to dorsal MEC, which terminates in the deep layers, I show that the significance of this up-regulation is independent of hippocampal inputs. Thus, although research addressing MEC function is particularly focussed on the superficial layers, during the exploratory behaviour that potentially primes the system for representing an environment, important plasticity may be occurring at the synapses onto deep layer neurons. In summary, my investigations of baseline and activity-dependent gene expression in MEC have revealed a molecular organisation both across different layers and along a functionally relevant gradient. This may be important for specifically targeting microcircuits in MEC and for characterising how laminar and regional differences contribute to the encoding of space in the hippocampal formation.