In this study, mixing is identified to be the most crucial step during the pre-processing process of extruded food and feed stocks. This study therefore aimed to investigate different mixing techniques in an effort to identify the most effective method and its feasibility to pilot plant application for food extrusion processing. The study furthermore considered the methods of mixing with the view to incorporating the identified method in a standard portable cargo container. The research included an investigation and the design of an inexpensive pre-processing control system that would also save space in such applications where storing facilities for ingredients are housed. After investigating different mixing solutions, a V-blender was identified to be a feasible option. It is suggested that by adding a third leg to the V-blender, to obtain what is dubbed as a “Y”-blender, the effectiveness of mixing would be improved upon - not only in the specified application but with respect to mixing in general. In order to evaluate and compare the effectiveness of the mixers, rapid prototyping models of a V- and a Y- blender, with capacities of about 7.6 litres each, were produced from medium density fibreboard (MDF) with the aid of a laser cutter. It was found that, for a recipe consisting of 87% fine yellow maize, 12.75% fine sugar and 0.25% colorant, the effectiveness of mixing within the V-blender was greatly influenced by the level to which it was filled. This was not the case for the Y-blender. This therefore suggested that a Y-blender is the ideal solution for the given application. A layout of a pre-processing system that fits in a standard shipping container and can accommodate six funnel-shaped raw material storage bins with a feed conveyor leading to a Y-blender is designed and a rapid prototyping model of the most vital components of the system is produced. A novel control system using the IOIO USB controller coupled to an Andriod device is developed and this sub-system, with dedicated software, is coupled to the prototyped pre-processing set-up and operated successfully. / MIng (Mechanical Engineering), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2014

In this study, mixing is identified to be the most crucial step during the pre-processing process of extruded food and feed stocks. This study therefore aimed to investigate different mixing techniques in an effort to identify the most effective method and its feasibility to pilot plant application for food extrusion processing. The study furthermore considered the methods of mixing with the view to incorporating the identified method in a standard portable cargo container. The research included an investigation and the design of an inexpensive pre-processing control system that would also save space in such applications where storing facilities for ingredients are housed. After investigating different mixing solutions, a V-blender was identified to be a feasible option. It is suggested that by adding a third leg to the V-blender, to obtain what is dubbed as a “Y”-blender, the effectiveness of mixing would be improved upon - not only in the specified application but with respect to mixing in general. In order to evaluate and compare the effectiveness of the mixers, rapid prototyping models of a V- and a Y- blender, with capacities of about 7.6 litres each, were produced from medium density fibreboard (MDF) with the aid of a laser cutter. It was found that, for a recipe consisting of 87% fine yellow maize, 12.75% fine sugar and 0.25% colorant, the effectiveness of mixing within the V-blender was greatly influenced by the level to which it was filled. This was not the case for the Y-blender. This therefore suggested that a Y-blender is the ideal solution for the given application. A layout of a pre-processing system that fits in a standard shipping container and can accommodate six funnel-shaped raw material storage bins with a feed conveyor leading to a Y-blender is designed and a rapid prototyping model of the most vital components of the system is produced. A novel control system using the IOIO USB controller coupled to an Andriod device is developed and this sub-system, with dedicated software, is coupled to the prototyped pre-processing set-up and operated successfully. / MIng (Mechanical Engineering), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2014

L’objectif de cette thèse est d’observer la modification du comportement rhéologique dedifférents polyéthylènes branchés, suite à un traitement de cisaillement. Après avoir décrit lesmatériaux et les moyens utilisés, nous avons caractérisé le plus complètement possible lecomportement rhéologique des différents matériaux, aussi bien en cisaillement qu'en élongation.Nous avons également déterminé des données calorimétriques et des informations sur lescaractéristiques moléculaires, permettant entre autres de définir la masse entre enchevêtrements.Nous avons ensuite mesuré l’évolution de la viscosité dans différentes conditions de pré‐cisaillement,en faisant varier le temps et le taux de cisaillement dans un rhéomètre cône‐plan et dans unegéométrie de Couette montée en amont d’un rhéomètre capillaire. Nous avons montré que lesmécanismes de désenchevêtrement sont complexes et qu'ils ne sont pas directement explicables parun seul paramètre, comme la masse entre enchevêtrements. Enfin, l’observation des extrudats à lasortie de la filière nous a permis de mettre en évidence la modification des défauts d'extrusion sousl’effet d’un pré‐cisaillement. / The aim of this work is to characterize the effects of shear modification on differentbranched polyethylenes. After a short description of materials and methods, we have characterizedthe rheological behaviour of the different materials, both in shear and elongation. We have alsoobtained calorimetric and molecular data, allowing us to define the molar mass betweenentanglements. Then, we have characterized the viscosity changes induced by a pre‐shear, indifferent conditions of shear rate and time, both in cone and plate and Couette geometries. We haveshown that the mechanisms of disentanglement are complex and cannot be directly explained by aunique parameter like the mass between entanglements. Finally, the observation of the extrudatesat the die exit has permitted to evidence the change in extrusion defects induced by shearmodification.

Quality protein maize (QPM), high protein corn (HPC) and food grade maize (FGM) were processed into tortillas and direct expanded extruded snacks. QPM had similar test weight, density and kernel size with 45% more lysine and 38% more tryptophan compared to FGM. HPC had the largest kernel with density and test weight similar to FGM. During alkaline cooking, HPC absorbed water faster than QPM and FGM. White QPM required shorter cooking time and had less dry matter losses compared to FGM. All corn varieties had excellent pericarp removal at the optimum cooking time. Tortillas from QPM had better pliability and rollability after storage compared to FGM and HPC. HPC tortillas had lower rupture force after storage. The use of QPM for tortilla production may reduce energy and sewage cost, and could produce a tortilla with longer shelf stability with improved nutritional value. Decorticated and non-decorticated QPM, FGM and HPC grain were processed into corn meal and direct expanded snacks. A modified short scale dry milling system was used to produce the corn meal. QPM produced more coarse meal with greater fat content compared to FGM. Decortication decreased fiber content and coarse meal yield. Non-decorticated meal had greater protein, fiber and fat content compared to decorticated meal. The modified short flow milling system provides reduced lost fractions for extrusion into nutritionally improved products. Extrusion was performed in a low cost friction extruder. QPM extruded faster than FGM and HPC. FGM required greater specific mechanical energy than QPM. Extrudates from FGM were the most expanded followed by QPM and HPC. Extrudates from the three corn varieties were acceptable to the panelists and decortication did not affect acceptability. The improved nutritional value of QPM, was retained during dry milling and extrusion. Current QPM varieties can be processed into tortillas with longer shelf stability and meal for extrusion into a wide variety of snacks and other foods. These may have application in specialty health foods and in developing countries where maize is a staple food.

Quality protein maize (QPM), high protein corn (HPC) and food grade maize (FGM) were processed into tortillas and direct expanded extruded snacks. QPM had similar test weight, density and kernel size with 45% more lysine and 38% more tryptophan compared to FGM. HPC had the largest kernel with density and test weight similar to FGM. During alkaline cooking, HPC absorbed water faster than QPM and FGM. White QPM required shorter cooking time and had less dry matter losses compared to FGM. All corn varieties had excellent pericarp removal at the optimum cooking time. Tortillas from QPM had better pliability and rollability after storage compared to FGM and HPC. HPC tortillas had lower rupture force after storage. The use of QPM for tortilla production may reduce energy and sewage cost, and could produce a tortilla with longer shelf stability with improved nutritional value. Decorticated and non-decorticated QPM, FGM and HPC grain were processed into corn meal and direct expanded snacks. A modified short scale dry milling system was used to produce the corn meal. QPM produced more coarse meal with greater fat content compared to FGM. Decortication decreased fiber content and coarse meal yield. Non-decorticated meal had greater protein, fiber and fat content compared to decorticated meal. The modified short flow milling system provides reduced lost fractions for extrusion into nutritionally improved products. Extrusion was performed in a low cost friction extruder. QPM extruded faster than FGM and HPC. FGM required greater specific mechanical energy than QPM. Extrudates from FGM were the most expanded followed by QPM and HPC. Extrudates from the three corn varieties were acceptable to the panelists and decortication did not affect acceptability. The improved nutritional value of QPM, was retained during dry milling and extrusion. Current QPM varieties can be processed into tortillas with longer shelf stability and meal for extrusion into a wide variety of snacks and other foods. These may have application in specialty health foods and in developing countries where maize is a staple food.

A estimação de parâmetros de equações constitutiva viscoelásticas, tipicamente efetuada através de diferentes tipos de reômetros, pode ser uma tarefa árdua, especialmente no que diz respeito à estimação de parâmetros não lineares. Nas últimas décadas houve grande progresso no desenvolvimento de novas metodologias para caracterização de fluidos viscoelásticos na região de comportamento viscoelástico não linear e na simulação de escoamentos de fluidos viscoelásticos nesta região. Este trabalho tem como objetivo apresentar uma metodologia de estimação de parâmetros reológicos de equações constitutivas viscoelásticas baseada na comparação recursiva entre valores originados em experimentos com a modelagem em fluidodinâmica computacional do escoamento de referência. Esta metodologia apresenta como vantagem a possibilidade de estimar parâmetros a partir de dados originados em escoamentos mais representativos dos processos industriais, resultando em parâmetros com maior potencial de representar adequadamente o comportamento viscoelástico de um dado material nas suas condições típicas de aplicação. Dois estudos de caso foram implementados de forma a testar a metodologia: o escoamento de um fluido newtoniano entre placas paralelas e o escoamento de um fluido viscoelástico na saída do capilar. A estimação da viscosidade newtoniana foi baseada na comparação entre valores analíticos e numéricos para o gradiente de pressão ao longo do escoamento. A estimação do parâmetro não linear da equação constitutiva viscoelástica de Phan-Thien-Tanner (PTT) foi baseada na diferença entre os perfis de diâmetro numéricos com relação aos valores experimentais para o fenômeno de inchamento do filete de fluido ao emergir da saída do capilar, conhecido como inchamento do extrusado. O erro final obtido para o valor estimado da viscosidade newtoniana foi de 9 % com relação ao valor de referência. Para o parâmetro não linear do modelo PTT o erro para o valor estimado foi de 0,75 % com relação ao valor de referência obtido pela técnica de reometria rotacional. / The estimation of viscoelastic constitutive equations parameters, typically performed through different types of rheometers, can be an arduous task, especially as regards the estimation of nonlinear parameters. In recent years, there has been great progress in developing new methods for the characterization of viscoelastic fluids beyond the linear region and in the simulation of viscoelastic fluid flows in general. This work aims to present a methodology for estimation of rheological parameters of viscoelastic constitutive equations. The methodology is based on recursive comparison between experimentally measured fields with numerically computed ones by a computational fluid dynamics (CFD) model. This methodology has the advantage of estimating parameters through data coming from more representative flows of industrial processes, resulting in parameters with higher potential to represent the viscoelastic behavior of a given material under its typical conditions of application. Two case studies have been used to test this methodology: a steady state shear flow between two parallel plates of a Newtonian fluid and a viscoelastic fluid flow in a capillary. The estimation of Newtonian viscosity was based on the comparison between analytical and numerical values for the pressure gradient along the flow. The estimation of the nonlinear parameter of the viscoelastic constitutive equation Phan-Thien-Tanner was based on the difference between the experimental and numerical diameter profiles of the swelling of the fluid emerging from the capillary opening, known as extrudate swell. The final error obtained for the estimated value of Newtonian viscosity was 9 % compared to the reference value. For nonlinear parameter of PTT model, the error of the estimated value was 0.75 % compared to the reference value obtained through rotational rheometer technique.

A estimação de parâmetros de equações constitutiva viscoelásticas, tipicamente efetuada através de diferentes tipos de reômetros, pode ser uma tarefa árdua, especialmente no que diz respeito à estimação de parâmetros não lineares. Nas últimas décadas houve grande progresso no desenvolvimento de novas metodologias para caracterização de fluidos viscoelásticos na região de comportamento viscoelástico não linear e na simulação de escoamentos de fluidos viscoelásticos nesta região. Este trabalho tem como objetivo apresentar uma metodologia de estimação de parâmetros reológicos de equações constitutivas viscoelásticas baseada na comparação recursiva entre valores originados em experimentos com a modelagem em fluidodinâmica computacional do escoamento de referência. Esta metodologia apresenta como vantagem a possibilidade de estimar parâmetros a partir de dados originados em escoamentos mais representativos dos processos industriais, resultando em parâmetros com maior potencial de representar adequadamente o comportamento viscoelástico de um dado material nas suas condições típicas de aplicação. Dois estudos de caso foram implementados de forma a testar a metodologia: o escoamento de um fluido newtoniano entre placas paralelas e o escoamento de um fluido viscoelástico na saída do capilar. A estimação da viscosidade newtoniana foi baseada na comparação entre valores analíticos e numéricos para o gradiente de pressão ao longo do escoamento. A estimação do parâmetro não linear da equação constitutiva viscoelástica de Phan-Thien-Tanner (PTT) foi baseada na diferença entre os perfis de diâmetro numéricos com relação aos valores experimentais para o fenômeno de inchamento do filete de fluido ao emergir da saída do capilar, conhecido como inchamento do extrusado. O erro final obtido para o valor estimado da viscosidade newtoniana foi de 9 % com relação ao valor de referência. Para o parâmetro não linear do modelo PTT o erro para o valor estimado foi de 0,75 % com relação ao valor de referência obtido pela técnica de reometria rotacional. / The estimation of viscoelastic constitutive equations parameters, typically performed through different types of rheometers, can be an arduous task, especially as regards the estimation of nonlinear parameters. In recent years, there has been great progress in developing new methods for the characterization of viscoelastic fluids beyond the linear region and in the simulation of viscoelastic fluid flows in general. This work aims to present a methodology for estimation of rheological parameters of viscoelastic constitutive equations. The methodology is based on recursive comparison between experimentally measured fields with numerically computed ones by a computational fluid dynamics (CFD) model. This methodology has the advantage of estimating parameters through data coming from more representative flows of industrial processes, resulting in parameters with higher potential to represent the viscoelastic behavior of a given material under its typical conditions of application. Two case studies have been used to test this methodology: a steady state shear flow between two parallel plates of a Newtonian fluid and a viscoelastic fluid flow in a capillary. The estimation of Newtonian viscosity was based on the comparison between analytical and numerical values for the pressure gradient along the flow. The estimation of the nonlinear parameter of the viscoelastic constitutive equation Phan-Thien-Tanner was based on the difference between the experimental and numerical diameter profiles of the swelling of the fluid emerging from the capillary opening, known as extrudate swell. The final error obtained for the estimated value of Newtonian viscosity was 9 % compared to the reference value. For nonlinear parameter of PTT model, the error of the estimated value was 0.75 % compared to the reference value obtained through rotational rheometer technique.

A estimação de parâmetros de equações constitutiva viscoelásticas, tipicamente efetuada através de diferentes tipos de reômetros, pode ser uma tarefa árdua, especialmente no que diz respeito à estimação de parâmetros não lineares. Nas últimas décadas houve grande progresso no desenvolvimento de novas metodologias para caracterização de fluidos viscoelásticos na região de comportamento viscoelástico não linear e na simulação de escoamentos de fluidos viscoelásticos nesta região. Este trabalho tem como objetivo apresentar uma metodologia de estimação de parâmetros reológicos de equações constitutivas viscoelásticas baseada na comparação recursiva entre valores originados em experimentos com a modelagem em fluidodinâmica computacional do escoamento de referência. Esta metodologia apresenta como vantagem a possibilidade de estimar parâmetros a partir de dados originados em escoamentos mais representativos dos processos industriais, resultando em parâmetros com maior potencial de representar adequadamente o comportamento viscoelástico de um dado material nas suas condições típicas de aplicação. Dois estudos de caso foram implementados de forma a testar a metodologia: o escoamento de um fluido newtoniano entre placas paralelas e o escoamento de um fluido viscoelástico na saída do capilar. A estimação da viscosidade newtoniana foi baseada na comparação entre valores analíticos e numéricos para o gradiente de pressão ao longo do escoamento. A estimação do parâmetro não linear da equação constitutiva viscoelástica de Phan-Thien-Tanner (PTT) foi baseada na diferença entre os perfis de diâmetro numéricos com relação aos valores experimentais para o fenômeno de inchamento do filete de fluido ao emergir da saída do capilar, conhecido como inchamento do extrusado. O erro final obtido para o valor estimado da viscosidade newtoniana foi de 9 % com relação ao valor de referência. Para o parâmetro não linear do modelo PTT o erro para o valor estimado foi de 0,75 % com relação ao valor de referência obtido pela técnica de reometria rotacional. / The estimation of viscoelastic constitutive equations parameters, typically performed through different types of rheometers, can be an arduous task, especially as regards the estimation of nonlinear parameters. In recent years, there has been great progress in developing new methods for the characterization of viscoelastic fluids beyond the linear region and in the simulation of viscoelastic fluid flows in general. This work aims to present a methodology for estimation of rheological parameters of viscoelastic constitutive equations. The methodology is based on recursive comparison between experimentally measured fields with numerically computed ones by a computational fluid dynamics (CFD) model. This methodology has the advantage of estimating parameters through data coming from more representative flows of industrial processes, resulting in parameters with higher potential to represent the viscoelastic behavior of a given material under its typical conditions of application. Two case studies have been used to test this methodology: a steady state shear flow between two parallel plates of a Newtonian fluid and a viscoelastic fluid flow in a capillary. The estimation of Newtonian viscosity was based on the comparison between analytical and numerical values for the pressure gradient along the flow. The estimation of the nonlinear parameter of the viscoelastic constitutive equation Phan-Thien-Tanner was based on the difference between the experimental and numerical diameter profiles of the swelling of the fluid emerging from the capillary opening, known as extrudate swell. The final error obtained for the estimated value of Newtonian viscosity was 9 % compared to the reference value. For nonlinear parameter of PTT model, the error of the estimated value was 0.75 % compared to the reference value obtained through rotational rheometer technique.

Este trabalho tem como objetivo o desenvolvimento de um método numérico para simular escoamentos viscoelásticos tridimensionais com superfícies livres governados pelo modelo constitutivo Giesekus. As equações governantes são resolvidas pelo método de diferenças finitas numa malha deslocada. A superfície livre do fluido é modelada por partículas marcadoras, possibilitando assim a visualização e localização da superfície livre do fluido. A equação constitutiva de Giesekus é resolvida utilizando as seguintes formulações: método de Runge-Kutta de segunda ordem (também conhecido como método de Euler modificado) e transformação logarítmica do tensor conformação. O método numérico apresentado é verificado comparando-se os resultados obtidos por meio de refinamento de malha para os escoamentos em um tubo e de um jato incidindo em uma placa plana. Resultados de convergência foram obtidos por meio de refinamento de malha do escoamento totalmente desenvolvido em um tubo. Os resultados numéricos obtidos incluem a simulação de um jato incidindo em uma caixa vazia e a simulação do inchamento do extrudado (dieswell) para vários números de Weissenberg utilizando diferentes valores do fator de mobilidade do fluido. Resultados adicionais incluem simulações do fenômeno delayed dieswell para altos números de Weissenberg e altos valores do número de Reynolds. Uma comparação qualitativa com resultados experimentais é apresentada. / In this work, a numerical method for simulating viscoelastic free surface flows governed by the Giesekus constitutive equation is developed. The governing equations are solved by the finite difference method on a staggered grid. The fluid free surface is approximated by marker particles which enables the visualization and location of the free surface fluid. The Giesekus constitutive equation is solved by the following techniques: second-order Runge-Kutta, conformation tensor and logarithmic transformation of the conformation tensor. The numerical method is verified by comparing the numerical solutions obtained on a series of embedding meshes of the flow in a tube and by the flow produced by a jet flowing onto a planar surface. Additional verification and convergence results are obtained by solving tube flow employing several meshes. Results obtained include the simulation of a jet flowing into a three dimensional container and the simulation of extrudate swell using several values of the Reynolds and Weissenberg numbers and different values of the mobility parameter a. Furthermore, we present results from the simulation of the phenomenon know as delayed dieswell using highWeissenberg and Reynolds numbers. Comparisons with experimental results are given.

Este trabalho tem como objetivo o desenvolvimento de um método numérico para simular escoamentos viscoelásticos tridimensionais com superfícies livres governados pelo modelo constitutivo Giesekus. As equações governantes são resolvidas pelo método de diferenças finitas numa malha deslocada. A superfície livre do fluido é modelada por partículas marcadoras, possibilitando assim a visualização e localização da superfície livre do fluido. A equação constitutiva de Giesekus é resolvida utilizando as seguintes formulações: método de Runge-Kutta de segunda ordem (também conhecido como método de Euler modificado) e transformação logarítmica do tensor conformação. O método numérico apresentado é verificado comparando-se os resultados obtidos por meio de refinamento de malha para os escoamentos em um tubo e de um jato incidindo em uma placa plana. Resultados de convergência foram obtidos por meio de refinamento de malha do escoamento totalmente desenvolvido em um tubo. Os resultados numéricos obtidos incluem a simulação de um jato incidindo em uma caixa vazia e a simulação do inchamento do extrudado (dieswell) para vários números de Weissenberg utilizando diferentes valores do fator de mobilidade do fluido. Resultados adicionais incluem simulações do fenômeno delayed dieswell para altos números de Weissenberg e altos valores do número de Reynolds. Uma comparação qualitativa com resultados experimentais é apresentada. / In this work, a numerical method for simulating viscoelastic free surface flows governed by the Giesekus constitutive equation is developed. The governing equations are solved by the finite difference method on a staggered grid. The fluid free surface is approximated by marker particles which enables the visualization and location of the free surface fluid. The Giesekus constitutive equation is solved by the following techniques: second-order Runge-Kutta, conformation tensor and logarithmic transformation of the conformation tensor. The numerical method is verified by comparing the numerical solutions obtained on a series of embedding meshes of the flow in a tube and by the flow produced by a jet flowing onto a planar surface. Additional verification and convergence results are obtained by solving tube flow employing several meshes. Results obtained include the simulation of a jet flowing into a three dimensional container and the simulation of extrudate swell using several values of the Reynolds and Weissenberg numbers and different values of the mobility parameter a. Furthermore, we present results from the simulation of the phenomenon know as delayed dieswell using highWeissenberg and Reynolds numbers. Comparisons with experimental results are given.