Thesis (M.Sc.(Civil Engineering))--University of the Witwatersrand, Faculty of Engineering, 1989.

The solid-solid separation processes employed by modern coal preparation plants require large amounts of process water that must be removed from the surfaces of particles using mechanical dewatering equipment. Unfortunately, the existing processes that are used to dewater fine particles are inefficient in terms of moisture reduction and/or solids recovery. Many coal preparation plants are forced to discard fine coal particles because of the inability of existing technologies to reduce the moisture content of this product to an acceptable level. In light of this problem, a new ultrafine dewatering process called hyperbaric filter centrifugation (HFC) has been developed. This novel method combines centrifugation and pressure filtration within a single process to substantially reduce moistures over what can be achieved using conventional dewatering systems. In the current study, steady-state and dynamic dewatering models were developed in order to be able to simulate the behavior of the HFC technology. The steady-state model, which was based on grain-size properties, used empirical expressions to predict product moistures. On the other hand, the dynamic model was based on fundamental theories of filtration and centrifugation. Although the dynamic model provided a better understanding of the working principles of the process, the steady-state grain model produced more accurate equilibrium moisture predictions. Therefore, the steady-state model was used to further investigate the effects of several parameters on cake moistures. As such, the steady-state model was useful for scale up and design purposes. The steady-state dewatering model was also used to perform an economical analysis of potential applications of the HFC technology. The model was used to investigate a variety of new circuit designs that have the potential to be commercially applied in the coal industry. The results clearly showed that this new technology would allow coal companies to process difficult-to-dewater ultrafines using the HFC process, while coarser solids would be more appropriately dewatered using conventional technologies such as vacuum filters or screenbowl centrifuges. This "split dewatering" concept would provide substantially higher profitability due to lower moistures and higher recoveries of ultrafine solids than could be achieved using a single dewatering process. Laboratory- and pilot-scale versions of this technology has been constructed and tested at the facilities of Mining & Minerals Engineering Department of Virginia Tech. Results of this testing program showed that 30-50% lower moisture values than the ones obtained using conventional mechanical dewatering processes could be achieved with the HFC technology. Based on these promising results, a pilot-scale prototype unit, which was tested successfully at several commercial U.S. coal plants, was also constructed by Decanter Machine, Inc. Finally, the process of developing of this novel technology was successfully completed with the sale of the first full-scale commercial unit by Decanter Machine, Inc. to a major U.S. coal producer. / Ph. D.

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No description available.

A kaolin in tapwater suspension was treated either with alum or one of two cationic polymers. The resulting suspension was filtered through various configurations of felt cloth filters. The kaolin suspension was adjusted to 100 JTU. Treatment by polymer consistently lowered the filtered effluent to less than 1 JTU. Jar tests were utilized to determine optimum coagulant dose for the tests. The formulation of a complete filter cake in the filter appeared to be the determining factor in the efficiency of water clarification by the filter. The literature lacked references to this concept as applied to water supply problems. The results of this report suggest that continuous filtration should now be examined.

Soluble manganese (Mn) is a common contaminant in drinking water sources. High levels of Mn can lead to aesthetic water quality problems, necessitating removal of Mn during treatment to minimize consumer complaints. Mn may be removed during granular media filtration by the "natural greensand effect," in which soluble Mn adsorbs to manganese oxide-coated (MnOx(s)) media and is then oxidized by chlorine, forming more manganese oxide. This research builds on a previous model developed by Merkle et al. (1997) by either neglecting the empirically determined available fraction of sorption sites (referred to as the "simple" model), which took into account the fact that some adsorption sites in the porous media were inaccessible, or by explicitly accounting for the transport and reaction processes within the porous structure of the MnOx(s) coating (referred to as the "mechanistic" model). Both models were applied to experimental data and used to evaluate the oxidation rate constant, which was the only unknown parameter. An inverse relationship between the fitted reaction rate constant and chlorine concentration was observed, showing that the oxidation reaction does not depend on chlorine concentration for the experimental conditions considered. In a sensitivity analysis, the adsorption isotherm and reaction rate were found to have the greatest impact on predicted Mn removal. The simple model should prove useful for designing contactor units for manganese removal, provided its limitations are clearly understood, while the mechanistic model should be able to resolve differences in the various types of oxide coating (internal porosity, surface area and coating thickness) and will allow a more fundamental and mechanistically-consistent evaluation of the appropriate form of the oxidation rate expression. However, further research is needed to more completely characterize the adsorption and reaction mechanisms over the range of conditions commonly encountered in water treatment plants. / Master of Science

Fine coal constitutes a relatively small portion of a product stream in a coal cleaning plant. However, its processing cost is approximately three times higher than the cost of processing coarse coal. Therefore, many coal companies chose to discard the fines to refuse ponds, causing a loss of profit and creating environmental concerns. This problem can be solved by developing more efficient fine coal dewatering processes, since bulk of the cost associated with processing fine coal is due to dewatering. For this reason, Virginia Tech has developed new chemicals that can increase the efficiency of mechanically dewatering coal fines. To determine the performance of the novel reagents on fine coal dewatering, laboratory vacuum filtration and centrifugation tests were conducted. The utilization of the novel dewatering aids in the dewatering systems decreased the final moisture contents of the filter cakes to sufficiently low values. There was approximately 50% reduction in the cake moisture of many coal samples with the usage of the novel dewatering aids. The tests were performed on various coal samples from different coal preparation plants. This gave the advantage of testing the novel dewatering aids at many different conditions since each sample had its own characteristics. The vacuum filtration tests were extensively used to compare the efficiency of each novel reagent in dewatering. The best performing dewatering aids were determined and they were further utilized to analyze the effects of operational variables, such as; drying cycle time, cake thickness, vacuum pressure level and slurry temperature on dewatering. A statistical analysis was also performed to observe the effect of each factor quantitatively. The analyses were very useful in terms of determining the synergistic effects of these factors in dewatering of fine coal. The centrifuge tests were conducted to examine the efficiency of the novel reagents in a different dewatering application. The experimental results showed a significant improvement in centrifuge dewatering with the usage of proper coal sample. The moisture contents of fairly thick cakes decreased down to 5-10%. This outcome was very satisfactory since most of the dewatering aids commonly used in the coal industry were observed to increase the final cake moisture in centrifuge dewatering instead of decreasing it. Finally, surface chemistry analyses were performed on the coal samples and slurries to analyze the changes in the chemistry of the dewatering system in the presence of the novel dewatering aids. It was observed that there was a favorable improvement in the system chemistry, which was helpful in terms of decreasing the cake moisture content. These observations were also consistent with the results of the dewatering tests. The combined effect of the novel additives in decreasing the surface tension of the slurry and increasing the contact angle of the coal surface at the same time was concluded to be the reason for their significant performance as dewatering aids. / Master of Science

Call number: LD2668 .T4 1984 H924 / Master of Science

Les performances de filtration des filtres de CTA vis-à-vis de particules et d’aérosols microbiens (AM) ont été étudiées ainsi quel’influence des conditions opératoires sur le comportement de microorganismes collectés sur les filtres. A l’échelle du laboratoire, une mini CTA ayant deux étages de filtration en série a été développée et validée pour l’étude de filtres prototypes ayant des géométries industrielles. Trois types de filtres de différentes efficacités ont été considérés : G4, F7 et F9 selon la norme EN 779. Deux configurations de filtres ont été étudiées : 1) G4 plan plissé/F7 à poches et 2) F7/F9 à poches. Les filtres ont été colmatés séquentiellement par des particules d’alumine, qui assurent une fraction minérale, puis du riz microniséqui apporte le champignon Penicillium chrysogenum et assure une fraction organique agissant comme substrat pour les microorganismes. Enfin, un AM composé d’endospores de Bacillus subtilis et de spores d’Aspergillus niger a été nébulisé pour la contamination des filtres. Après colmatage, des périodes de marche/arrêt de la ventilation de différentes durées (10 j ou 6 semaines) ont été simulées. Lors des reprises de la ventilation, des comptages de particules et d’AM en avaldes filtres ont été effectués. Les principaux résultats sont : (i) les filtres placés en 2ème étage présentent un colmatage plus faible que ceux du 1er étage de filtration, (ii) survie de B. subtilis, croissance de P. chrysogenum et décroissance d’A. niger sur les filtres quelle que soit la période d’arrêt de ventilation étudiée, et (iii) lors des reprises de ventilation, il n’a pas été observé de relargage d’AM pour la fraction échantillonnée.D’autre part, deux CTA à pleine échelle ont été étudiées pendant 6 mois. Une CTA ayant deux étages de filtration avec une configuration G4 plan plissé/F7 à poches, traite l’air extérieur et le souffle vers des locaux desservis. L’autre CTA correspond à l’extraction de l’air vicié d’un local pour le rejeter vers l’extérieur. La perte de charge des filtres, l’humidité relative, et la température de l’air ont été suivies en continu. L’efficacité des filtres vis-à-vis des particules et des aérosols microbiens a été mesurée une fois par mois. Une méthodologie originale de suivi mensuel de la concentration des microorganismescollectés sur les filtres a été mise en oeuvre. Les principaux résultats sont : (i) faible évolution de la perte de charge du filtre placé en 2ème étage, (ii) efficacité des filtres G4 comparable à celle des filtres G4 prototypes, (iii) efficacité du filtre F7 plus faible que celle des filtres prototypes, ce qui peut être expliqué par une différence de vitesse de filtration entre les deux échelles, (iv) le filtre G4 de la CTA-extraction contient une concentration de microorganismes 10 fois plus élevée que celle du filtre G4 de la CTA-soufflage après 6 mois de fonctionnement. / Filtration performances of Air Handling Units (AHU) filters regarding particles and microbial aerosols have been studied, as well as the influence of the AHU operational conditions on behavior of microorganisms collected on the filters. A lab-scale AHU with two successive filtration stages was developed and validated for the study of prototype filters with industrial geometries. Three types of filters of different efficiency have been considered : G4, F7 and F9 according to EN 779 Standard. Two configurations of filters were considered: 1) G4 pleated/F7 bag and 2) F7/F9 bag. Filters were sequentially clogged by alumina particles which assured a mineral fraction, and then by micronized rice particles which provides the fungi Penicillium chrysogenum and assures an organic fraction which acts as a substrate for microorganisms. Finally, a microbial aerosol composed by endospores of Bacillus subtilis and spores of Aspergillus niger was nebulized for filters contamination. After clogging, stops and restarts of ventilation were simulated for different durations (10 days or 6 weeks). During restarts of ventilation, particles and microbial aerosols samplings were performed downstream of the filters. Main results are: (i) level of clogging is significantly less important for the 2nd filtration stage than for the first one, (ii) survival of B. Subtilis, growth of P. Chrysogenum and decline of A.niger on the filters whatever the period of time studied, and (iii) during restarts of ventilation, microbial aerosols releasing was not detected for sampled fraction. Moreover, two full-scale AHU were studied during 6 months. One of the AHU studied is equipped with two filters in series: a G4 pleated filter in 1st stage and a F7 bag filter in 2nd stage. This AHU treats the outdoor air to blow it towards the indoor environments. The other one extracts the indoor air to reject it back outdoors. The filters pressure drop, relative humidity and temperature of the air were measured continuously. Filters efficiency regarding particles and microbial aerosols were measured once a month. An original methodology for the monthly estimation of the concentration of microorganisms on the filters was implemented. Main results are: (i) no significant evolution of the filter pressure drop in 2nd stage, (ii) efficiency of G4 filters are comparable to the prototype filtersone, (iii) efficiency of F7 filters are lower than prototype filters one, which can be explained by differences of filtration velocity between the two scales, (iv) after 6 months of operation, concentration of microorganisms on G4 filter of the AHU of extraction is 10 times higher than the G4 filter one of AHU who treats outdoor air.

This research aimed to address the knowledge gaps in the literature regarding the removal of waterborne pathogens (viruses and protozoa) by modified multistage slow sand filtration. In the current study, two pilot-scale multistage slow sand filtration systems were operated continuously for over two years. The pilot systems treated agricultural- and urban-impacted raw river water of variable quality with turbidity peaks over 300 NTU and seasonal cold temperatures <2??C. The first system (Pilot 1) consisted of two independent trains that included pre-ozonation, shallow-bed upflow gravel roughing filtration, and shallow-bed slow sand filtration. Pilot 1 was a pilot-scale version of an innovative, commercially available full-scale system. The second system (Pilot 2) included a full-depth upflow gravel roughing filter, a full-depth slow sand filter, and a second shallow-depth slow sand filter in series. The SSFs of both pilots were operated at high hydraulic loading rates (typically 0.4 m/h) at the upper limit of the literature recommended range (0.05 to 0.4 m/h). Both pilot systems provided excellent turbidity removal despite the high filtration rates. Effluent turbidity of all multistage SSF pilot systems were within the regulated effluent limits in Ontario for full-scale SSFs (below 1 NTU at least 95% of the time and never exceeded 3 NTU), despite raw water turbidity peaks over 100 NTU. The roughing filters contributed to approximately 60-80% of the full-train turbidity removal, compared to and 20-40% for the slow sand filters. On average, the second slow sand filter in pilot 2 provided almost no additional turbidity removal. The slow sand filter run lengths were short because of frequent high raw water turbidity, with about 50-80% of the runs in the range of 1-3 weeks. To prevent excessive SSF clogging and maintenance, filtration rates should be decreased during periods of high turbidity. Seven Cryptosporidium and Giardia challenge tests were conducted on the slow sand filters of both pilot systems at varying filtration rates (0.4 or 0.8 m/h), temperatures (2 to 25??C), and biological maturities (4 to 20 months). Removal of oocysts and cysts were good regardless of sand depth, hydraulic loading rate, and water temperature in the ranges tested. Average removals in the SSFs ranged from 2.6 to >4.4 logs for Cryptosporidium oocysts and ranged from >3.8 to >4.5 logs for Giardia cysts. This was consistent with findings in the literature, where oocyst and cyst removals of >4 logs have been reported. Cryptosporidium oocyst removals improved with increased biological maturity of the slow sand filters. At a water temperature of 2??C, average removal of oocysts and cysts were 3.9 and >4.5 logs, respectively, in a biologically mature SSF. Doubling the filtration rate from 0.4 to 0.8 m/h led to a marginal decrease in oocyst removals. Sand depths in the range tested (37-100 cm) had no major impact on oocyst and cyst removals, likely because they are removed primarily in the upper section of slow sand filter beds by straining. In general, good oocyst and cyst removals can be achieved using shallower slow sand filter bed depths and higher filtration rates than recommended in the literature. There are very few studies in the literature that quantify virus removal by slow sand filtration, especially at high filtration rates and shallow bed depths. There are no studies that report virus removal by slow sand filtration below 10??C. As such, 16 MS2 bacteriophage challenge tests were conducted at varying water temperatures (<2 to >20??C) and filtration rates (0.1 vs. 0.4 m/h) between February and June 2006 on biologically mature slow sand filters with varying bed depths (40 vs. 90 cm). Biologically mature roughing filters were also seeded with MS2. Average MS2 removals ranged from 0.2 to 2.2 logs in the SSFs and 0.1 to 0.2 logs in the RFs under all conditions tested. Virus removal by slow sand filtration was strongly dependant on hydraulic loading rate, sand depth, and water temperature. Virus removal was greater at a sand depth of 90 cm vs. 40 cm, at an HLR of 0.1 m/h vs. 0.4 m/h, and at warm (20-24??C) vs. cold (<2-10??C) water temperatures when sufficient warm water acclimation time was provided. Increased sand depth likely increased MS2 removal because of greater detention time for predation and greater contact opportunities for attachment to sand grains and biofilms. A lower HLR would also increase MS2 removal by increasing detention time, in addition to decreasing shear and promoting attachment to filter media and biofilms. Greater MS2 removal at warmer water temperatures was attributed to improved biological activity in the filters. Schmutzdecke scraping was found to have only a minor and short-term effect on MS2 removals. Virus removal can be optimized by providing deep SSF beds and operating at low filtration rates. Virus removal may be impaired in cold water, which could affect the viability of using SSF/MSF at northern climates if communities do not use disinfection or oxidation. As a stand-alone process, slow sand filtration (with or without roughing filtration) may not provide complete virus removal and should be combined with other treatment processes such as disinfection and oxidation to protect human health.