O peso corporal dos animais tende a ser relativamente estável durante longos períodos de tempo. Situações de restrição calórica ou aumento na ingestão de calorias levam a alterações fisiológicas compensatórias que resistem aos efeitos destas perturbações. De fato, o gasto energético aumenta em animais submetidos à dieta hipercalórica, a chamada termogênese facultativa, de modo a manter os estoques energéticos constantes. É possível que defeitos na termogênese facultativa estejam envolvidos no desenvolvimento da obesidade. O BAT, o principal sítio de termogênese facultativa, é ativado pela liberação de NE pelo Sistema Nervoso Simpático, que se liga aos receptores adrenérgicos b1, b2 e b3 expressos nos adipócitos marrons. Diversos estudos demonstram que os receptores b são importantes na proteção contra a obesidade, mas ainda não é claro qual o papel de cada isoforma neste processo. Assim sendo, o objetivo do nosso trabalho foi avaliar o papel das isoformas b1 e b2 na mediação da termogênese facultativa induzida pela dieta. Para tanto, nós tratamos camundongos com nocaute para o receptor adrenérgico b1 (KOb1) e camundongos com nocaute para o receptor b2 (KOb2) com dieta hipercalórica por 22 semanas. O peso corporal foi medido diariamente e o consumo de oxigênio foi determinado usando-se um sistema de respirometria aberto ao final do experimento. A composição corporal foi determinada pela análise da carcaça. Animais foram expostos ao frio de 4ºC por 4h e sua temperatura corporal foi medida em vários tempos e a resposta térmica do iBAT foi determinada pela infusão de NE ou agonista b adrenérgico. Além disso, foram determinados os níveis de RNAm das isoformas de receptores adrenérgicos b nos animais nocaute. Os resultados obtidos em nosso estudo mostram que os animais KOb1 e KOb2 tratados com dieta hipercalórica não desenvolvem obesidade mais severa do que os animais selvagens mas não são capazes de aumentar o consumo de oxigênio induzido pela dieta, sugerindo que estes receptores não são relevantes na termogênese induzida pela dieta. Por outro lado, nossos dados indicam que a presença do receptor b1 é exigida para termogênese induzida pelo frio, uma vez que os camundongos KOb1 são sensíveis ao frio e a capacidade termogênica do BAT destes animais em reposta à NE é bastante reduzida quando comparados com animais selvagens. A ausência do receptor b2 não piora a resposta dos animais ao frio sugerindo que esta isoforma não esteja envolvida na termogênese induzida pela dieta ou pelo frio. Os nossos achados indicam que a isoforma do receptor adrenérgico b1 é fundamental na termogênese induzida pelo frio, mas não pela dieta. Além disso, é provável que a termogênese induzida pela dieta seja regulada por mecanismos distintos da termogênese induzida pelo frio. / The body weight of animals tends to be relatively stable over long periods of time. Situations of caloric restriction or increase in intake of calories lead to compensatory physiological changes that resist the effects of these disorders. In fact, the energy expenditure increases in animals treated with diet hypercaloric called facultative thermogenesis, in order to keep to energy stock constant. Defects in this facultative thermogenesis may be related to the development of obesity. Brown adipose tissue is the main site of facultative thermogenesis and is activated by signaling of b1, b2 e b3 adrenergic receptors by Norepinephrine released by Sympathetic Nervous System. Several studies showed that the isoforms b of adrenergic receptors are important in mechanisms involved in obesity and also in promoting cold tolerance. Nonetheless, it is unclear the role of each isoform in these process. Therefore, the purpose of our study was to evaluate the role of isoforms b1 and b2 in mediate the facultative thermogenesis. For that, we fed nocaute mice for the adrenergic receptor b1 (KOb1) and nocaute mice for the adrenergic receptor b2 (KOb2) with high fat diet for 22 weeks. During treatment body weight was determined daily. By the end of the experiment oxygen consumption was measured using a system of open respirometry and body composition was determined by analysis of the carcass. We also exposed KOb1 and KOb2 animals to cold (4C). The thermogenic response of iBAT was evaluated through i.v NE infusion. The results obtained in our study showed that the animals KOb1 and KOb2 treated with high fat diet did not gain more fat when compared to wild type animals, but are unable to increase the oxygen consumption, suggesting that these receptors are not relevant in development of obesity. Furthermore, our data indicate that the presence of the b1 receptor is required for cold-induced thermogenesis, since the KOb1 mice are sensitive to cold and BAT thermogenic response is significantly impaired when compared with animals wild type. The absence of b2 receptor does not worsen the response of animals to cold suggesting that this isoform is not involved in the diet- or cold- induced thermogenesis. In conclusion, our findings indicate that the b1 isoform of the adrenergic receptor is critical in the cold-induced thermogenesis, but not in diet induced thermogenesis. Moreover, it is likely that the diet-induced thermogenesis and cold-induced thermogenesis are regulated by different mechanisms.

abstract: Parental care provides many benefits to offspring. One widely realized benefit is enhanced regulation of offspring's thermal environment. The developmental thermal environment during development can be optimized behaviorally through nest site selection and brooding, and it can be further enhanced by physiological heat production. In fact, enhancement of the developmental thermal environment has been proposed as the initial driving force for the evolution of endothermy in bird and mammals. I used pythons (Squamata: Pythonidae) to expand existing knowledge of behavioral and physiological parental tactics used to regulate offspring thermal environment. I first demonstrated that brooding behavior in the Children's python (Antaresia childreni) is largely driven by internal mechanisms, similar to solitary birds, suggesting that the early evolution of the parent-offspring association was probably hormonally driven. Two species of python are known to be facultatively thermogenic (i.e., are endothermic during reproduction). I expand current knowledge of thermogenesis in Burmese pythons (Python molurus) by demonstrating that females use their own body temperature to modulate thermogenesis. Although pythons are commonly cited as thermogenic, the actual extent of thermogenesis within the family Pythonidae is unknown. Thus, I assessed the thermogenic capability of five previously unstudied species of python to aid in understanding phylogenetic, morphological, and distributional influences on thermogenesis in pythons. Results suggest that facultative thermogenesis is likely rare among pythons. To understand why it is rare, I used an artificial model to demonstrate that energetic costs to the female likely outweigh thermal benefits to the clutch in species that do not inhabit cooler latitudes or lack large energy reserves. In combination with other studies, these results show that facultative thermogenesis during brooding in pythons likely requires particular ecological and physiological factors for its evolution. / Dissertation/Thesis / Ph.D. Biology 2012

O peso corporal dos animais tende a ser relativamente estável durante longos períodos de tempo. Situações de restrição calórica ou aumento na ingestão de calorias levam a alterações fisiológicas compensatórias que resistem aos efeitos destas perturbações. De fato, o gasto energético aumenta em animais submetidos à dieta hipercalórica, a chamada termogênese facultativa, de modo a manter os estoques energéticos constantes. É possível que defeitos na termogênese facultativa estejam envolvidos no desenvolvimento da obesidade. O BAT, o principal sítio de termogênese facultativa, é ativado pela liberação de NE pelo Sistema Nervoso Simpático, que se liga aos receptores adrenérgicos b1, b2 e b3 expressos nos adipócitos marrons. Diversos estudos demonstram que os receptores b são importantes na proteção contra a obesidade, mas ainda não é claro qual o papel de cada isoforma neste processo. Assim sendo, o objetivo do nosso trabalho foi avaliar o papel das isoformas b1 e b2 na mediação da termogênese facultativa induzida pela dieta. Para tanto, nós tratamos camundongos com nocaute para o receptor adrenérgico b1 (KOb1) e camundongos com nocaute para o receptor b2 (KOb2) com dieta hipercalórica por 22 semanas. O peso corporal foi medido diariamente e o consumo de oxigênio foi determinado usando-se um sistema de respirometria aberto ao final do experimento. A composição corporal foi determinada pela análise da carcaça. Animais foram expostos ao frio de 4ºC por 4h e sua temperatura corporal foi medida em vários tempos e a resposta térmica do iBAT foi determinada pela infusão de NE ou agonista b adrenérgico. Além disso, foram determinados os níveis de RNAm das isoformas de receptores adrenérgicos b nos animais nocaute. Os resultados obtidos em nosso estudo mostram que os animais KOb1 e KOb2 tratados com dieta hipercalórica não desenvolvem obesidade mais severa do que os animais selvagens mas não são capazes de aumentar o consumo de oxigênio induzido pela dieta, sugerindo que estes receptores não são relevantes na termogênese induzida pela dieta. Por outro lado, nossos dados indicam que a presença do receptor b1 é exigida para termogênese induzida pelo frio, uma vez que os camundongos KOb1 são sensíveis ao frio e a capacidade termogênica do BAT destes animais em reposta à NE é bastante reduzida quando comparados com animais selvagens. A ausência do receptor b2 não piora a resposta dos animais ao frio sugerindo que esta isoforma não esteja envolvida na termogênese induzida pela dieta ou pelo frio. Os nossos achados indicam que a isoforma do receptor adrenérgico b1 é fundamental na termogênese induzida pelo frio, mas não pela dieta. Além disso, é provável que a termogênese induzida pela dieta seja regulada por mecanismos distintos da termogênese induzida pelo frio. / The body weight of animals tends to be relatively stable over long periods of time. Situations of caloric restriction or increase in intake of calories lead to compensatory physiological changes that resist the effects of these disorders. In fact, the energy expenditure increases in animals treated with diet hypercaloric called facultative thermogenesis, in order to keep to energy stock constant. Defects in this facultative thermogenesis may be related to the development of obesity. Brown adipose tissue is the main site of facultative thermogenesis and is activated by signaling of b1, b2 e b3 adrenergic receptors by Norepinephrine released by Sympathetic Nervous System. Several studies showed that the isoforms b of adrenergic receptors are important in mechanisms involved in obesity and also in promoting cold tolerance. Nonetheless, it is unclear the role of each isoform in these process. Therefore, the purpose of our study was to evaluate the role of isoforms b1 and b2 in mediate the facultative thermogenesis. For that, we fed nocaute mice for the adrenergic receptor b1 (KOb1) and nocaute mice for the adrenergic receptor b2 (KOb2) with high fat diet for 22 weeks. During treatment body weight was determined daily. By the end of the experiment oxygen consumption was measured using a system of open respirometry and body composition was determined by analysis of the carcass. We also exposed KOb1 and KOb2 animals to cold (4C). The thermogenic response of iBAT was evaluated through i.v NE infusion. The results obtained in our study showed that the animals KOb1 and KOb2 treated with high fat diet did not gain more fat when compared to wild type animals, but are unable to increase the oxygen consumption, suggesting that these receptors are not relevant in development of obesity. Furthermore, our data indicate that the presence of the b1 receptor is required for cold-induced thermogenesis, since the KOb1 mice are sensitive to cold and BAT thermogenic response is significantly impaired when compared with animals wild type. The absence of b2 receptor does not worsen the response of animals to cold suggesting that this isoform is not involved in the diet- or cold- induced thermogenesis. In conclusion, our findings indicate that the b1 isoform of the adrenergic receptor is critical in the cold-induced thermogenesis, but not in diet induced thermogenesis. Moreover, it is likely that the diet-induced thermogenesis and cold-induced thermogenesis are regulated by different mechanisms.

Abstract In homeothermic birds and mammals, several thermoregulatory adaptations have evolved for surviving in unstable, food-restricted conditions. This study focuses on two adaptive mechanisms in pigeons (Columba livia) and quails (Coturnix coturnix japonica): hypothermia and the adaptive use obligatory heat production connected with feeding and digestion. The plasticity of the hypothermic response in fed and fasted birds and birds with restricted feeding was studied in laboratory and outdoor winter conditions. The other objective was to study adaptive timing of digestion, and substitution of facultative thermogenesis by obligatory heat production in cold and at thermoneutrality. The results showed that fasting has a strong influence on the level of nocturnal hypothermia in laboratory conditions: hypothermia becomes progressively deeper when fasting continues. In outdoor conditions, ambient temperature and predation risk modulated the daily body temperature (Tb) pattern of fasting pigeons. In very cold conditions, diurnal Tb of fasted birds also dropped below the normal level of the active phase. Predation risk prevented diurnal hypothermia but also attenuated the depth of nocturnal hypothermia in fasting pigeons. This study provides the first empirical effects of predation risk on hypothermia in starving birds. The study suggests that the presence of crop in pigeons allows adaptive timing of digestion. At thermoneutrality, peak digestion appeared late in the dark phase in birds with fed in the morning. Because the Tb of the birds increases to diurnal levels late in the dark phase, this obligatory heat from digestion can be used to aid re-warming by such timing. On other hand, the results of this study were partly opposite to the classical model of thermoregulatory substitution. In line with the classical model, a postprandial increase in metabolic rate (heat increment of feeding, HIF) was seen at thermoneutrality but not in cold. However, electromyographic measurements showed that there was no postprandial decrease in the intensity of shivering in the fed birds in cold. This indicates that true thermoregulatory substitution may be less common than assumed and suggests a role for facultative thermogenesis in HIF.