Ethnic-racial socialization (ERS) is a culturally relevant parenting practice commonly used within African American families to teach children about their cultural heritage and prepare them for discrimination experiences. There is an abundance of literature exploring ERS within the adolescent and young adult developmental stages, however few studies have investigated ERS during early childhood. A further understudied area is the relation between ERS and other socialization strategies that African American parents use to raise well-adjusted children. As such, guided by Garcia Coll's eco-cultural framework, the purpose of this study was to investigate ERS and other socialization strategies, identified in the five domains of socialization, used among rural, low-income African American parents of three-year-olds. First, frequencies of ERS were conducted to determine the amount of ERS that these African American parents use with their young children. Results indicated that nearly half of the mothers (47.7%) reported using some ERS. Next, latent profile analysis was used to identify profiles of ERS, as well as profiles of all five domains of socialization. Results indicated two profiles for ERS (Unengaged and Early Engagers) and two profiles for the five domains of socialization (Non-Race Specific Socialization and Multifaceted Socialization). Mothers in the Unengaged profile were characterized by low scores on all three ERS dimensions (cultural socialization, preparation for bias and promotion of mistrust), while mothers in the Early Engagers profile were characterized by more ERS than those in the Unengaged, specifically focusing on cultural socialization and preparation for bias. Compared to those in the Early Engagers profile, mothers in the Unengaged profile were more likely to report not having enough money, greater gender role stereotyping, and more social support. For the socialization profiles, mothers in the Non-Race Specific Socialization profile were characterized by socialization variables similar to the sample mean, while the mothers in the Multifaceted Socialization profile were characterized by utilizing more ERS, engaging in more family activities and discipline strategies, and displaying less sensitivity than the mothers in the Non-Race Specific Socialization profile. Compared to those in the Multifaceted Socialization profile, mothers in the Non-Race Specific Socialization profile indicated not having enough money, greater gender role stereotyping, and fewer discrimination experiences. Findings for this study suggest that African American mothers are using ERS with their young children, and they incorporate ERS along with other important socialization strategies. Implications for researchers and clinicians were addressed. / A Dissertation submitted to the Department of Family and Child Sciences in partial fulfillment of the Doctor of Philosophy. / Spring Semester 2017. / March 24, 2017. / African American families, Ethnic-racial Socialization, Parenting, Socialization / Includes bibliographical references. / Melinda Gonzales-Backen, Professor Directing Dissertation; Eric Stewart, University Representative; Lenore McWey, Committee Member; Ming Cui, Committee Member.

Despite rapid growth and expansion of Hispanic immigrant families to the United States over the past several decades, there is a clear underrepresentation of literature dedicated to mental health treatment and prevention for this population. Even fewer studies have examined the predictors of parenting stress in Hispanic immigrant mothers. This present study aimed to identify the salient predictors of parenting stress in a sample of Hispanic immigrant mothers (N = 110) living in New York City. This research utilized archival data previously collected by the Ackerman Institute for the Family in partnership with the Coalition for Hispanic Family Services in September 2014 (n = 53) and in September 2015 (n = 57) for the participants who completed the initial enrollment assessments for their First Steps parenting education program. Measures that assessed participant risk factors, social support, and parenting stress included: the Family Risk Index (FRI; Grossman, 2011), the Patient Health Questionnaire – 9 (PHQ-9; Kroenke & Spitzer, 2002), the Family Support Scale (FSS; Dunst, Jenkins, & Trivette, 2007), and the Parenting Stress Index – Short Form (PSI-SF; Abidin, 1995). It was hypothesized that risk factors (depression, educational attainment, single mother status, documentation status, and having a child with special needs), social support, and length of time living in the U.S. would all significantly predict parenting stress. In addition, it was hypothesized that social support would moderate the relationship between risk and parenting stress and that documentation status would moderate the relationship between social support and parenting stress. Results of a linear multiple regression analysis found depression significantly predicted increased parenting stress and social support significantly predicted decreased parenting stress. However, single mother status, educational attainment, having a child with special needs, documentation status, and length of time living the U.S. were all non-significant predictors of parenting stress. Results of moderated regression analyses found social support significantly moderated the relationship between educational attainment and parenting stress. Documentation status did not moderate the relationship between social support and parenting stress. Despite the limitations of this present study, implications for mental health practitioners highlight the significance of cultural values and contextual circumstances on how a Hispanic immigrant mother appraises depression, social support, and parenting stress. Individualizing prevention and intervention efforts for Hispanic immigrant mothers is recommended in order to capture both cultural values and contextual circumstances unique to each individual. / A Dissertation submitted to the Department of Educational Psychology and Learning Systems in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. / Fall Semester 2016. / November 21, 2016. / Hispanic, Immigrant, Mothers, Parenting stress, Risk Factors, Social Support / Includes bibliographical references. / Debra Osborn, Professor Directing Dissertation; Sandra Lewis, University Representative; Frances Prevatt, Committee Member; Martin Swanbrow Becker, Committee Member.