Researchers have commonly clustered together both binary transgender and non-binary individuals in their research studies. When assessing attitudes, it is likely that attitudes toward these two groups have been combined leading to valuable reports of attitudes missing from the literature. While measurements within the field of psychology have been created to assess attitudes toward binary transgender individuals, there currently is no measurement to assess attitudes toward non-binary individuals. As such, three studies were conducted to create a reliable and valid measurement of attitudes toward non-binary individuals. In Study 1 Part 1, 33 items were reworded and utilized from previously created measurements assessing attitudes toward LGBTQ individuals and 7 items were created to provide a basis for this measurement. In Study 1 Part 2, responses from six non-binary expert judges were collected that included feedback and thoughts pertaining to the 40 measurement items created in Study 1 Part 1 and thematic analysis was conducted. In Study 1 Part 3, the 40 measurement items were either omitted, kept as is, or revised. Furthermore, additional measurement items were created based on the feedback from the non-binary expert judges. In Study 2, 400 cisgender, heterosexual women and men responded to 50 items from the revised measurement, an exploratory factor analysis was conducted, and reliability was assessed. An independent samples t-test was conducted to examine gender differences between women and men regarding their attitudes toward non-binary individuals, and no gender differences were observed. In Study 3, 400 participants responded to 47 items, a confirmatory factor analysis was conducted, and both reliability and validity were assessed. Additionally, an independent samples t-test was conducted to examine gender differences between women and men regarding their attitudes toward non-binary individuals, and these results were identical to the results in Study 2. Implications of the Attitudes Toward Non-Binary Individuals Measurement, strength of the studies, limitations, and future directions were discussed. Ultimately, this measurement is the first within the field of psychology to assess attitudes toward non-binary individuals.

Although religious beliefs often associate with gendered hierarchy in sociological studies, very few studies have examined religion and gendered hierarchy within intimate relationships. This study used an exemplary sample to explore how religious, heterosexual married couples view and possibly practice gendered hierarchy. Interviews from 77 highly religious, highly satisfied couples provided insight into the following themes: (1) the potential harm of hierarchy, (2) misunderstanding hierarchy, (3) rejection of hierarchy, and (4) acceptance of hierarchy. For couples who expressed acceptance of hierarchy, further exploration revealed subthemes explaining how they conceptualized this practice. Subthemes included (4a) mutual submission, (4b) joint discussion, and (4c) the male burden of responsibility. Data drawn directly from interviews provide detailed support in the paper for each theme and subtheme. While a minority of participants described their marriages as equal partnerships, a majority of the couples in this sample expressed acceptance of some degree of gendered hierarchy in their relationships. Participants expressed devotion to God and belief in sacred roles as partial explanations for their acceptance of gendered hierarchy. For both participants who accepted and those who rejected hierarchy, the importance of love and respect between partners emerged as central to navigating power dynamics in marriage.

Researchers have established that legal cynicism is linked to violence, deviant behavior, and crime. In response to the potentially dangerous implications of a legally cynical society, research in recent years has attempted to identify experiences and conditions that play a role in the development of legal attitudes. Given that youths' familial and social conditions appear to be influential predictors, this study tests the relationship between parental incarceration and legal cynicism. Data from the Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study were used for this analysis. Results from three OLS regression models indicate that parental incarceration is not a significant predictor of legal cynicism after adjusting for demographic factors. This study supports existing research for some of the risk factors tested and refutes others. Overall, findings do not support the hypothesis that children who have experienced parental incarceration have a heightened risk of legal cynicism in adolescence. Future research may investigate how youths' witness of parental arrest shapes legal attitudes.

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With increased access and use of pornography over the internet, the association between pornography use and marital distress needed to be examined in a quantitative manner. There was a need to discover if, and or how, marital relationships are impacted by internet pornography use. Assessment instruments were used to measure internet pornography use (Internet Sex Screen Test revised for pornography), marital adjustment (Marital Adjustment Test items #1 and #14), marital satisfaction (Revised Dyadic Adjustment Scale), and marital intimacy (Personal Assessment of Intimacy in Relationships). The results of this study suggested the following; there was a significant positive relationship between the level of internet pornography use and sexual intimacy as experienced by the wife (r=.80, p=.05), there was a significant negative relationship between a husbands internet pornography use and intellectual intimacy as experienced by the couple (r=-.57, p=.05), and no significant relationship between a husbands internet pornography use and his responses to the various dependent variables, implying that he is unaware of how his behaviors impact his wife. The other intimacy scales, as well as the marital adjustment and satisfaction criteria were not significantly influenced. Sample size and the power of statistical results needed to be explained in order to address possible Type II errors. The results of this study should be viewed as preliminary because of the small sample size and homogenous sample. The results of these findings are discussed, along with clinical applications, and suggestions for further study.

Given that more and more young people are living at home well into their twenties, and parents no longer see their children as adults until well into their mid to late twenties (Nelson, Walker, Carroll, Madsen, Barry, & Badger, 2006), parents may continue to "parent" for much longer than we have typically believed. Although parenting may still play an important role, little research has been done examining parenting in emerging adulthood, including its correlates and outcomes. As such, there is a need for a measure of parenting that is appropriate for use in emerging adulthood. The current study attempted to develop a measure that identifies and assesses behaviors that reflect various styles of parenting during emerging adulthood including authoritative, authoritarian, and permissive parenting. Specifically, the purposes of this study were: 1) to examine whether or not authoritative, authoritarian and permissive parenting styles could be identified in parents of emerging adults and 2) to assess the validity and reliability of the parenting measure that emerges from the factor analysis for both parents' self reports and spouse reports. Based on the factor analyses of items in the parenting scale, it appears that authoritative, authoritarian, and permissive parenting can be identified as distinct and separate parenting styles in parents of emerging adults. The results of the study further suggest that the parenting measure is a reliable and valid measure for use with parents of emerging adults.

The purpose of this study was to examine whether Western typologies of parenting (authoritative, authoritarian, permissive, and psychological control) and their dimensions (e.g., connection, regulation, physical punishment, verbal hostility) can be measured in the context of Japanese parenting. Based on the literature review, it was hypothesized that these parenting constructs are measurable in Japan. The participants were 214 Japanese mothers of preschool-age children (101 boys and 113 girls) from several preschools in Kushiro-city, Japan. A series of two-group (boys and girls) Confirmatory Factor Analysis was carried out with Mplus statistical software to test the measurement models of authoritative, authoritarian, permissive, and psychological control constructs and to establish measurement invariance across child gender. In addition, latent intercorrelations and gender differences in the means of the latent constructs were computed. To a large extent, our hypotheses were confirmed. In line with expectations, authoritative and authoritarian parenting items formed a 23-item, five-factor model. For psychological control, a 9-item, two-factor model emerged, indicating that the constructs of shaming and directiveness are also measurable in Japan. However, an invariant measurement model for permissive parenting could not be identified. Based on latent intercorrelations, many parenting dimensions were highly correlated, but a series of chi-square difference tests showed that most dimensions were statistically distinguished within our measurement models. Interestingly, shaming and directiveness were associated with dimensions of both authoritative and authoritarian parenting. Latent mean comparisons identified no significant gender difference in Japanese mothers' parenting patterns for boys and girls. This study was one of the first quantitative, systematic studies of parenting styles in Japan using advanced statistical modeling and represents a starting point for cross-cultural research in Japanese parenting.

The purpose of this study was to investigate whether an adolescent's experience with different types of leisure (achievement, social or time-out) would moderate the negative effects of dysfunctional family process on an adolescent's emotional health. A model was tested that hypothesized that leisure experienced as achievement or social by adolescents would buffer the negative effects of a dysfunctional family. A sample of 243 clinical and non-clinical adolescents completed the Global Severity Index, the Family Assessment Device, and the Leisure Questionnaire. Three regression analyses were run for the whole sample (n=243), the male sample (n=150), and the female sample (n=93). In each analysis, more family dysfunction predicted more psychological symptoms. Using the whole sample, it was found that both social and time-out leisure (solitary activities) had a negative moderating effect, that is, increasing psychological symptoms, while achievement leisure had no moderating effects on symptoms. When looking at the regression analysis results for each gender, the male sample showed a time-out leisure moderating effect and the female sample showed a social leisure moderating effect—both increasing psychological symptoms. These findings were contrary to the hypothesis that leisure experienced as achievement or social leisure would buffer the negative effects of dysfunctional family process on adolescent emotional health. In fact, results suggested that some types of leisure may be harmful to some adolescents and that clinicians need to be aware of the types of leisure their adolescent clients are participating in, i.e. males experiencing leisure as time-out and females experiencing leisure as social may be related to more rather than less severe psychological symptoms. In addition, these results suggest the key importance of family process in adolescent emotional health and how important family-of-origin issues are when working with adolescents in clinical settings. Limitations of the study and implications for future research and clinical practice are discussed.

Experiences of the bilingual client in therapy have received attention in the literature but accounts of the experience of the bilingual therapist are strikingly sparse. The purpose of this study was to focus on the bilingual therapist's perception of the impact of language on the therapeutic process. To achieve this goal, the researcher interviewed therapists who speak Spanish as a second language and work with native Spanish-speaking clients. Data analysis was completed using ethnographic research methods, which resulted in the emergence of three themes. The first theme included therapists' perceived obstacles to second-language therapy. Each of the participants in the study discussed things that made therapy in a second language more difficult for them than in their native English. The second theme that emerged included the compensatory coping strategies. Many of the therapists interviewed discussed certain strategies they employed to prepare themselves to offer competent services to the Spanish-speaking community. These coping skills compensated for the obstacles that were unavoidable in their second-language work. The third and final theme included the facilitative beliefs about Spanish-language work experience. Each of the therapists interviewed for this study expressed certain beliefs that enabled them to continue offering services in Spanish in the face of some intense difficulties. These beliefs gave therapists a positive spin on their experiences, and enhanced their beliefs that doing therapy in Spanish was worth the added effort it took to do therapy in a second language. Implications for clinicians as well as future research are presented.

Researchers have recognized that social withdrawal in early childhood is a complex and multifaceted construct which includes three main observed subtypes: reticence, solitary-passive withdrawal, and solitary-active withdrawal. Each is differentially associated with children's behavioral outcomes in Western societies (e.g., United States, Canada). Furthermore, potential gender differences may exist regarding the distinct associations between non-social behavior and indices of maladjustment across boys and girls due to differential societal and cultural gender-role expectations. Previous studies suggest that subtypes of observed social withdrawal can be identified in Chinese preschoolers. It is important to examine the behavioral correlates of observed withdrawn subtypes in the Chinese cultural context due to the social-cultural variations in what is considered as socially acceptable/adaptable behaviors between North America and China. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to examine the various behavioral correlates of different forms of nonsocial play among Chinese preschoolers and potential gender differences in the linkages. Teachers of 506 preschoolers from two cities in mainland China completed a battery of questionnaires that assessed various aspects of child behavioral outcomes in early childhood, including social withdrawal, assertiveness-prosociability, aggression, impulsive/disruptive behaviors, and anxiousness. Measurement models estimated with two-group confirmatory factor analyses yielded invariant factor structures for boys and girls for each of the behavioral measures. Distinct patterns of associations were found among behavioral correlates of subtypes of observed social withdrawal across boys and girls. Solitary-passive play was negatively associated with prosocial behaviors for girls and boys, positively related to impulsive behaviors for girls and boys, and negatively associated with victimization and anxious behavior for girls, but not boys. Solitary-active play was found to be negatively related to prosocial behaviors, positively associated with physical aggression, victimization, impulsive, and anxious behavior for girls and boys. Reticence was associated with less prosocial behavior for boys and girls. It was also positively associated with victimization, impulsiveness, and anxious behaviors for girls (but not boys). These gender difference findings and their implications for child adjustment in the Chinese cultural context are discussed.