Philosophiae Doctor - PhD / The general image of large-scale commercial farming in South Africa is one of technological dynamism and international competitiveness. However, such a generalisation obscures considerable differentiation in terms of size, scale, capital reproduction strategies and future directions of change between and within farming regions. My study on reproduction, accumulation and differentiation in the large-scale commercial farming sector makes a small contribution towards explaining this substantive diversity, as well as the underlying processes at work, in three different agro-ecological regions of the country. A framework to analyse the strategies of large-scale commercial farmers was derived from volume 1 of Marx’s Capital and interpretations thereof by Marxist scholars, e.g. Ernest Mandel, Henry Bernstein, David Harvey, Ben Fine and Alfredo Saad-Filho. The four strategies or processes are broadly identified as a) expanding the scale or scope of production, in other words, to increase the capital intensity of production and/or geographic size, and/or the number of products, b) expanding the scale or scope of the business by expanding into new enterprises either up or down the value chain, c) increasing economic efficiency, which can be achieved by means of lowering the cost of commodity production, increasing productivity in terms of yield per hectare or per animal through technical and biological efficiency, or by organising workers and tasks to make workers as productive as possible, and d) taking part in political action in order to reduce uncertainties and/or establish preferential access to and control over key resources, markets or policy processes. Data from a questionnaire survey conducted with 141 large-scale commercial farmers in Limpopo, the Western Cape and Northern Cape provinces, as well as semi-structured interviews with 32 farmers in these regions were analysed to determine the most prevalent strategies and assess their outcomes. The outcomes of these strategies varied between and within regions and resulted in the differentiation of capitalist farmers into “accumulators”, “successful reproducers”, “struggling reproducers” and “simple commodity producers”. This approach helps to uncover processes and patterns of agrarian change, and provides a richer, more detailed, understanding of the dynamics of change in the large-scale farming sector of South Africa which can help inform debates on policy optionsfor the sector and for land reform.

Philosophiae Doctor - PhD / Apple fruit quality is of utmost importance to apple farmers and breeders in the selection and commercialization of new cultivars. Fruit size, colour, texture, firmness and taste are all traits that affect the quality of fruit. In this study the genetic contribution of these traits, and others were evaluated in order to generate the genetic markers required for the application of marker assisted selection in fruit quality breeding. Three mapping populations, ‘Prima’ x ‘Anna’, ‘Golden Delicious’ x ‘Priscilla’ and ‘Golden Delicious’ x ‘Anna’, consisting of 87, 87 and 141 respectively, were used in the study. Fruit samples were analysed, using a range of visual, physical and sensory measurements, over a period of three years, and the data was then correlated using statistical analysis. Traits analysed included stripe-ness, fruit colour, fruit size, fruit form, ground colour, russet, texture, fruit firmness, juiciness, sugar content, acidity, taste, skin toughness, %TSS, fruit mass and diameter. ANOVA detected significant levels of variation between the three families for all traits except taste and russet; while highly significant ‘within family’ variation was also observed for all traits in pre- and post-storage analyses, except for sugar content (sweetness) and fruit form. Within family variation also contributed the largest percentage towards the variance components of all traits. Heritability estimates found stripe-ness to be the most heritable trait, from subjective analyses, while heritability values ranged from 0.41 to 0.84 for instrumentally measured traits. The genetic maps for the three populations were generated using both published microsatellites and new EST-SSR and DART markers, using JoinMap 4.0". The integrated genetic linkage maps of ‘Prima’ x ‘Anna’, ‘Golden Delicious’ x ‘Priscilla’, ‘Golden Delicious’ x ‘Anna’ consisted of 398 (133 SSR and 265 DArT), 353 (80 SSR and 273 DArT) and 213 (87 SSR and 126 DArT) markers respectively. The maps were 1021.6cM, 1079cM and 1302.7cM in length, respectively. Location of quantitative trait loci (QTL) for 14 fruit quality traits was detected using MapQTL 5.0" and a total of 79 pre-storage and 60 poststorage QTLs were identified on the three mapping populations. Comparative genome analysis and the role of various genes on the outcome of fruit quality can now be investigated. Using the integrated genetic maps, and the QTLs identified, candidate markers associated with these QTL can be used for marker-assisted selection, to increase the speed and efficiency of the apple breeding program.

Agriculture is considered a critical sector in attaining economic growth for most economies in Africa. However, for the sector to play its role, it needs to be commercialised to enable smallholder farmers to participate in markets and, hence, improve their incomes and livelihoods. In most developing economies, smallholder farmers find it difficult to participate in markets because of the numerous constraints and barriers mostly reflected in the transaction costs that make access to input and output markets difficult. When analysing the effects of transaction costs on market participation, much attention has been accorded to farmers while ignoring middlemen/traders who are also part of the marketing system. Furthermore, studies on the effect of transaction costs on market participation tend to focus on grains and cereals while ignoring agrocommodities that are more perishable. The purpose of this study was to holistically examine the effects of transaction costs on participation of smallholder farmers and middlemen in banana markets of the Great Lakes region in central Africa. The study adopted a non-separable household model which incorporated fixed and proportional transaction costs in the function of maximising utility subject to resource constraints. The Heckman procedure was used to determine the factors affecting the discrete choice of smallholder farmers on whether to sell and quantities to sell while catering for selection biases. Probit analysis was used to determine the farmers’ choice of selling point while the ordinary least squares method was used to analyse the extent of participation of traders. Variables capturing transaction costs in regards to information gathering, negotiating, contracting, monitoring and enforcing of contracts were used in the analyses. The empirical analyses were based on secondary data availed for 2666 farming households and 494 traders located in Burundi, Democratic Republic of Congo and Rwanda. The results of the study indicate that fixed and proportional transaction costs distinctly affect the participation of smallholder farmers in markets. Belonging to farmer groups facilitates information exchange which reduces fixed transaction costs and, hence, increases the likelihood of farmers to participate in markets. The size of a household, distance to markets and ownership of transport means, which is linked to proportional transaction costs, influence the extent of farmer participation in markets. The choice of selling point was significantly influenced by household size, the gender of the household head, off farm revenue, access to price information and the extent of remoteness of household. The effects of transaction costs on market participation of smallholder farmers were more evident in the analyses for bananas than in the one for beans. The participation of traders was significantly influenced by gender, trading experience and supply distance which relate to the bargaining prowess, business networks and per unit transport cost, respectively. Interventions geared towards supporting associations for farmers may facilitate information exchange and enhance bargaining and contracting skills which subsequently reduce transaction costs. Policies aimed at supporting investment in rural infrastructure, in terms of feeder road networks and market places, can lead to reduction in transaction costs and thereby enhance participation of farmers and traders in markets. / Thesis (PhD)--University of Pretoria, 2011. / Agricultural Economics, Extension and Rural Development / unrestricted

The sustainable use of Dambos for crop production using a technological package is presented. Dambos which are known as vleis in South Africa and Zimbabwe, fadamas in West Africa and mbugas in East Africa are identified as potential environments and key-resource areas for alleviating poverty and hunger in arid and semi-arid areas where drought occurrences are characteristic and limit upland crop production. Dambos present themselves as environments with soil moisture potential and high water tables ranging from 50 - 100 cm below the ground surface for most part of the year. Particular difficulties arise in abstracting this water for use to irrigate crops in Dambos. Most small-scale farmers use a rope and a bucket to draw water from hand dug wells. These methods are labour intensive and thus limited lands are cultivated by small-scale farmers. This study has identified, modified and introduced a treadle pump as a technology for lifting water from shallow water tables such as in Dambos. The treadle pump also lifts water from rivers, swamps, wells and dams within a suction lift of 0-8 m to the intended place of use i.e. vegetable garden, domestic application, livestock watering and in construction. The study has further investigated and introduced the clay pot as a water saving device. The clay pot sub-surface irrigation technology saves between 50 and 70 % of water as compared to conventional watering can and bucket systems. This technology can combine well with the treadle pump by using the latter to refill water in the former, thus making it easy to fill the system once the water is depleted. The use of the treadle pump has demonstrated its impact on the society in many ways. Firstly: the small-scale farmer is now able to increase the size of his/her garden from 0.1 ha irrigating using watering cans/buckets to between 0.25 ha and 0.5 ha using the treadle pump. With this innovative way of irrigating, farmers have thus been able to diversify cropping. Secondly: farmers have been able to increase household income from a meager US$125 without a treadle pump to US$850 and US$1700 on a 0.25 ha piece of land with a treadle pump on a 300% cropping intensity (growing crops three times a year). This has helped the country reduce on imported vegetables and thus save the much needed foreign exchange. Thirdly: the technology has contributed to employment creation, notably from the manufacturing point of view where artisans are employed to make the pump and carpenters to make the wooden parts. On the output side for buyers (merchants/hawkers) and transport contractors who trade and transport the produce. The study essentially alludes to the great impact the treadle pump has made by noting the brand naming of the pump as 'Chova pump' by the small-scale farmers. Chova is a local name, which means to boost one's income or to pedal signifying the manner in which the pump is operated. Dambos, cover about 3.6 million hectares of land in Zambia and are suitable environments for application of the treadle pump. The potentials and limitations of Dambos are highlighted and the impact of their use using treadle pumps elucidated. Marketing of Dambo produce is discussed with respect to the adoption of the technology. The study notes that Dambos are highly accessible with no land tenure limitations. Thus the more than 800,000 small-scale farmers in Zambia have an opportunity to utilize Dambos for crop production and help reduce poverty and food insecurity at household level. / Dissertation (PhD(Land Use Planning))--University of Pretoria, 2002. / Plant Production and Soil Science / unrestricted

This study focused on two central themes. The first addressed the vulnerability of farmers to climate change at household and regional levels. The second theme analysed determinants of adaptation measures and factors influencing the perceptions of climate change in the Nile Basin of Ethiopia. Three approaches are employed to address the above themes. The first approach is the vulnerability to expected poverty approach. It is based on estimating the probability that a given shock or set of shocks moves consumption by households below a given minimum level (such as a consumption poverty line) or forces the consumption level to stay below the given minimum requirement if it is already below this level. This is adopted to assess vulnerability at household level. Secondly, the method of principal component analysis (PCA) is employed to create vulnerability indices to conduct a comparative analysis of the vulnerability across regional states. Lastly, the Heckman selection probit model is used to analyse the two-step process of adaptation, which consists of perceiving a change in climate followed by taking appropriate adaptation measures in response. Results indicate that vulnerability is highly sensitive to a minimum income requirement (poverty line) that farm households require to survive on a daily basis. For example, when the daily minimum income is fixed at US$0.3 per day, only 7 percent of farmers are vulnerable to future climate change, whereas at a minimum income level of US$2 per day, 93 percent of the farmers are vulnerable to climate extremes. Therefore, policies should encourage income generation and asset holding, both of which will enable consumption smoothing during and immediately after harsh climatic events. Results further show that the relatively least-developed, semi-arid and arid regions namely, Afar and Somali, are highly vulnerable to climate change. The large Oromia region, which is characterised both by areas of good agricultural production in the highlands and midlands and by recurrent droughts, especially in the lowlands, is also vulnerable. Furthermore, the Tigray region, which experiences recurring droughts, is also vulnerable to the negative impacts of climate change in comparison with the other regions. Integrated rural development policies, aimed at alleviating poverty with special emphasis on the relatively less-developed regions of the country (i.e., Afar and Somali), can play a double role in reducing poverty and in increasing adaptive capacity to climate change. The study also reveals that experienced farmers, more educated farmers, better-off farmers, better-informed farmers, farmers who access extension and credit services and those with stronger social networks are more likely to perceive climate change and adapt. Government policies and investment strategies that support the provision of and access to education; credit; extension services on crop and livestock production; information on climate and adaptation measures across different agro-ecologies and encourage informal social networks are necessary to better adapt to climate change in Ethiopia. / Thesis (PhD)--University of Pretoria, 2010. / Agricultural Economics, Extension and Rural Development / unrestricted

The study attempts to evaluate the usability and effectiveness of an agricultural information booklet known as Sunflower production: A concise guide targeted at small-scale rural farmers in a South African developmental context. The main objectives are to establish the target audience’s current knowledge of printed information as well as to examine the elements of the text such as appreciation, comprehension, and acceptance. This study also attempts to explore demographics and socio-economic factors as possible barriers to the effectiveness of communication in a developmental context. The argument is that the viability of, and prospects for effective communication with the small-scale rural farmers depend on two interrelated aspects vis-à-vis usability and effectiveness. Firstly, usability is the extent to which a communication ‘product’ such as the information booklet can be used by specific users to achieve specific goals with effectiveness, efficiency and satisfaction in a specified context such as agricultural development. Secondly, effectiveness is the completeness and the accuracy with which users achieve specified goals. It often relies on the presentation of information in a way that is understandable to the users. Doak and Doak (1996: 73) argue that although many types of material are suitable, most current information documents have shortcomings that make them difficult to understand. A serious shortcoming includes too much information in the document, which discourages poor readers and tends to obscure the priority of information for all readers. Sometimes the readability levels become too high for the average person. The reader is not asked to interact with the material, so the opportunity for learning and recall is lost. In most instances, difficult, uncommon words are seldom explained through examples. This is an empirical study that attempts to approach the world of research subjects, in this case small-scale rural farmers, with the minimum of preconceived ideas and to look at the phenomenon under discussion, namely usability and effectiveness. It has a predominantly descriptive nature and is focused on the distinguishing characteristics of text focus, expert judgement and reader/user focus. These issues were investigated during the research conducted among small-scale rural farmers in the North West province of South Africa. The booklet was also evaluated with the intention to establish which meaning the receivers find in the booklet on sunflower production and whether these messages really communicate the desired information. The research established that the material is not suitable for the target audience. The findings of the study provided valuable information for development communication message design. It is clear that the dissemination of development information in the rural context must be revised to ensure effectiveness. This study supports the hypothesis that if the presentation of information is not appropriate for a specific target audience, the communication will not be effective. / Dissertation (MA(Development Communication))--University of Pretoria, 2005. / Information Science / unrestricted

The definition of genocide encompasses not only the killing of a protected group as is so often erroneously believed, but also inter alia the causing of serious bodily and mental harm to a group and deliberately inflicting conditions of life on a group calculated to bring about its destruction in whole or in part. Eight stages have been identified through which conventional genocide goes. There is a closed list of four groups named in the Genocide Convention in respect of which genocide can be perpetrated. Problems have been experienced with the classification and the determination whether a group should qualify or not. In answer to this problem, the definition of the groups should be seen cohesively and attempts should preferably not be made to compartmentalise any group suspected of being targeted for genocide. The special intent required for genocide sets it apart from other crimes against humanity. The intention that needs to be proven is the desire to exterminate a group as such in whole or in part. The mention of “in part” opens the door for genocide to be perpetrated against a small sub-group which conforms to the definition of a group. The white Afrikaner farmer forms part of the larger white Afrikaner group residing in South Africa. Incitement to genocide is an inchoate crime and is regarded as a lesser crime reflected in lower sentences being passed for incitement than for genocide itself. The requirements are that the incitement must be direct and public. The required intention to incite must also be proven for a conviction to follow. The farmer who laid the complaint with the International Criminal Court, did so in the hope that the Prosecutor would utilise his or her proprio motu powers to instigate an investigation in South Africa regarding white Afrikaner farmers. The complaint and petition as well as the statistics used by the farmer paint the picture of incitement to genocide and possible genocide. The allegations are not specific and will have to be proven in a court of law for any such finding to follow. / Abstract

The purpose of this study was to determine the extent that birthplace influences the socio-economic characteristics or the usage of sources of information in samples of farmers from two areas of British Columbia. Two areas of divergent farm types namely the Peace River and South Okanagan areas were chosen for analysis from the sixteen areas surveyed by the ARDA Canada Land Inventory Project in British Columbia. Interview schedules completed in 1967 and 1968 surveys of these areas were used as the source of data. Excluded were all those respondents who sold less than $250 worth of agricultural goods produced on the land they occupied. The Peace River sample consisted of 112 farmers of whom 27.7 percent were foreign born while the South Okanagan sample consisted of 61 farmers of whom 50.8 percent were not born in Canada. The majority of the statistically significant differences in distribution of the socio-economic characteristics and use of information sources among the groups by birthplace of the Peace River were attributable to the age differences between the groups, due to the areas settlement history. There were very few statistically significant differences in distribution noted among the groups of farmers of the South Okanagan. Further there were few differences among the groups by birthplace between the areas studies that could not be attributed to geographic differences between the areas. The results of this study would suggest that place of birth does not strongly influence the socio-economic characteristics or usage of information sources in the two areas studied. / Land and Food Systems, Faculty of / Graduate

[No abstract] / Arts, Faculty of / Political Science, Department of / Graduate

Diploma thesis on the topic of marketing research farmers markets aims to identify the most important motives that influence buying behavior of consumers who visit farmers markets, as well as those who do not seek out farmers markets on the contrary. The first part is to get familiar with issues from a marketing point of view. Next, I considered it important to clarify to what are principles and rules of farmers' markets and how do they work in general. The practical part of my thesis includes its own investigation dealing with the degree of popularity of farmers' markets for consumers in the Czech Republic. The conclusion gives marketing recommendations based on the analysis of the results of my research and the external observation. The results of my research can serve both for laymen who want to learn more about this topic from a marketing point of view, as well as for all stakeholders in this field.