Situações ameaçadoras (p.ex., exposição ao labirinto em cruz elevado LCE) induzem respostas comportamentais e neurovegetativas, geralmente acompanhadas por antinocicepção e da ativação do eixo hipotálamo-pituitária-adrenais (HPA). Além disso, é conhecido que a matéria cinzenta periaquedutal (MCP) faz parte do substrato neural para a expressão de alterações comportamentais e neurovegetativas em resposta a estímulos aversivos e que essa estrutura mesencefálica é longitudinalmente dividida em quatro colunas (dorsomedial, dorsolateral, lateral e ventrolateral) que estão envolvidas em coordenar estratégias distintas para o animal lidar com diferentes tipos de estresse, ameaça e dor. No presente estudo foram analisados os níveis plasmáticos de corticosterona em camundongos expostos a 3 tipos de LCE, o fechado (LCEf: 4 braços fechados - situação não aversiva), o padrão (LCEp: 2 braços abertos e 2 braços fechados - situação aversiva com a possibilidade de esquiva/fuga) ou o aberto (LCEa: 4 braços abertos - situação aversiva sem a possibilidade de esquiva/fuga). O perfil da resposta hormonal foi também avaliado em animais concomitantemente submetidos à injeção de formalina 2,5% no dorso da pata traseira direita (teste de nocicepção). O estudo também avaliou a duração da antinocicepção induzida pela exposição ao LCEa em animais mantidos ou não neste ambiente aversivo. A caracterização da participação da MCP neste tipo de antinocicepção foi avaliada pela lesão irreversível (produzida pela injeção de NMDA) uni ou bilateral da porção dorsal (MCPd: colunas dorsolateral e dorsomedial) e bilateral da porção ventrolateral (MCPvl) desta estrutura mesencefálica sobre a resposta nociceptiva induzida pela injeção de formalina na pata traseira direita em camundongos expostos ao LCEf ou ao LCEa. Finalmente, os efeitos da lesão da MCPd ou da MCPvl nos índices de ansiedade foram avaliados no labirinto em cruz elevado padrão (LCEp) em camundongos com ou sem a injeção prévia de formalina. Os resultados mostraram que a exposição aos três tipos de LCE aumentou a secreção plasmática de corticosterona (CORT), porém os níveis foram superiores nos animais expostos ao LCEp ou LCEa quando comparados ao LCEf. Além disso, quando os animais foram submetidos ao teste de formalina níveis elevados, porém semelhantes, de CORT foram verificados após a exposição aos diferentes LCE, sugerindo que o estímulo nociceptivo elevou as concentrações plasmáticas desse glicocorticóide para valores máximos. Na avaliação da duração da antinocicepção induzida pela exposição ao LCEa, verificou-se que esta reação defensiva cessou imediatamente após a retirada do animal deste ambiente, mas perdurou por até 20 minutos quando o animal foi mantido nesta condição ameaçadora. Por fim, a lesão das diferentes porções da MCP mostrou que tanto a MCPd como a MCPvl parecem não estar envolvidas na antinocicepção induzida pela exposição ao LCEa. Curiosamente, a lesão da MCPvl reduziu a resposta nociceptiva de animais submetidos ao LCEf e aumentou a locomoção durante a exposição ao LCEf e LCEa. Além disso, a lesão bilateral da MCPd reduziu seletivamente os índices de ansiedade (% de entradas e de tempo nos braços abertos do LCEp) somente em camundongos que não foram submetidos ao teste da formalina, o que sugere que a nocicepção prejudicou o efeito ansiolítico produzido pela lesão desta porção da MCP. No entanto, é importante destacar que a lesão da MCPvl não alterou os índices de ansiedade e a locomoção de camundongos não submetidos a estimulação sensorial nociceptiva concomitante. / Threatening situations (e.g., exposure to an elevated plus-maze with four open arms oEPM) induce behavioral and neurovegetative responses generally accompanied by antinociception and activation of the hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis. Furthermore, it is known that the midbrain periaqueductal gray (PAG) is part of the neural substrate for the expression of behaviorally and neurovegetative alterations in response to aversive stimuli. In addition, the PAG is longitudinally divided into four columns (dorsomedial, dorsolateral, lateral and ventrolateral) that are involved in coordinating distinct strategies for animals coping with different types of stress, threat and pain. The present study analyzed the plasmatic levels of corticosterone when mice with or without prior 2.5% formalin injection into the right hind paw (nociception test) were exposed in one of the 3 types of EPM, the enclosed (eEPM: 4 enclosed arms - non-aversive situation), the standard (sEPM: two open and two closed arms - aversive situation with the possibility of avoidance/flight) or the open (oEPM: 4 open arms - aversive situation without the possibility of avoidance/flight) EPM. The study also investigated the temporal evaluation of the oEPM-induced antinociception when mice were kepted in (for 30 min) or removed from (after 10 min of exposure) that aversive environment (i.e., the oEPM). The characterization of the PAG participation in this type of antinociception was evaluated by irreversible (produced by NMDA injection) uni or bilateral lesion of dorsal PAG portion (dPAG: dorsolateral and dorsomedial columns) and bilateral ventrolateral PAG lesion (vlPAG). Finally, the effects of dPAG or vlPAG lesion on the anxiety indices were investigated in mice with or without prior formalin injection during the exposure to the sEPM. Results showed that the eEPM exposure increased the plasmatic concentration of corticosterone (CORT), however sEPM or oEPM exposure animals showed higher levels of CORT than eEPM-exposed mice. Moreover, when animals were submitted to the formalin test high, but similar levels of this glucocorticoid were verified after the exposure to the different EPM, suggesting that nociception also has provoked a ceiling effect on plasma corticosterone concentration. Results also showed that the oEPM-induced antinociception ceased immediately after mice withdrawal from the aversive situation. However, this pain inhibition response remained unchanged for approximately 20 min in animals that were kept in the threatening condition. Finally, the lesions of different portions of PAG showed that neither dPAG nor vlPAG appear to be involved in the modulation of the oEPM-induced antinociception. Curiously, vlPAG lesion reduced the nociceptive response in animals submitted to the eEPM and increased the locomotion during eEPM and oEPM exposure. Moreover, bilateral dPAG lesion reduced anxiety indices (% of open arm entries and % of open arm time) only in mice that had not received prior injection of formalin, suggesting that nociception impaired the anxiolytic-like effect produced by dPAG lesion. It is important to highlight that vlPAG lesion did not alter the anxiety-like indices and the locomotion in mice not submitted to the concurrent nociceptive stimulation.

Decades of research in quantitative genetics have found substantial heritability for personality traits as well as for mental disorders which formed the basis of the ongoing molecular genetic studies that aim to identify genetic variations that actually contribute to the manifestation of complex traits. With regard to psychological traits, genetic variation impacting neurotransmitter function have been of particular interest. Additionally, the role of environmental factors including gene × environment interactions has been further investigated and the impor-tance of developmental aspects has been stressed. Furthermore, endophenotypes which link complex traits with their respective biological underpinnings and thus bridge the gap between gene and behaviour have begun to be included in research efforts. In accordance with this approach, this thesis aims to further examine the influence of genetic variation impacting serotonergic and dopaminergic functioning on endophenotypes of anxiety-related behaviour. To this end, two well established paradigms – the acoustic startle reflex and the cortisol stress response – were employed. Both show considerable interindividual variation which has been found in quantitative genetic studies to be at least partly based on genetic factors. In addition, the neural circuits underlying these endophenotypes are relatively well understood and thus reveal references for the detection of associated genetic influences. The results of this thesis associate the overall startle magnitude in two independent samples of young adults with a polymorphism in the promoter region of the serotonin transporter (5-HTT) gene (5-HTTLPR): Carriers of the short (S) allele which results in a reduced gene ex-pression showed a stronger startle magnitude which is in line with numerous findings linking the S allele to increased measures of negative emotionality. In addition to 5-HTTLPR, the effects of past stressful life events on the startle response were investigated: Participants who had recently experienced at least one stressful life event exhibited stronger startle responses and reduced habituation of the startle reflex although there was no 5-HTTLPR × environment inter-action effect. A third study revealed independent and joint effects of 5-HTTLPR and a poly-morphism in the dopamine receptor 4 gene (DRD4) in the same sample of young adults with regard to the cortisol stress response with carriers of the DRD4 7R allele which has been associ-ated with higher scores in sensation seeking, showing reduced cortisol responses. In addition, a 5-HTTLPR × DRD4 interaction effect emerged: 5-HTTLPR long (L) allele carriers showed the lowest cortisol response but only when they possessed at least one copy of the DRD4 7R allele. Moreover, in a fourth study a life span approach was taken and the influence of a further important serotonergic polymorphism which impacts the functioning of tryptophan hydroxylase 2 (TPH2), the rate limiting enzyme in the biosynthesis of serotonin, on interindividual differences in the startle response was investigated in three different age samples: children, young adults and older adults. There was a sex × TPH2 genotype interaction effect in a sample of young adults on the overall startle response while there was no effect of TPH2 in children or older adults. The last study of this thesis presents findings regarding the influence of two dopaminergic polymorphisms in genes encoding the enzyme catechol-O-methyltransferase (COMT) and the dopamine transporter (DAT), respectively, which both terminate dopamine signalling and are thus important regulators of dopaminergic neurotransmission, on the startle reflex in older adults. COMT met/met homozygotes showed the strongest and val/val homozygotes displayed the smallest startle magnitude which is in line with findings linking the COMT met allele to increased scores of anxiety related traits and disorders. Regarding DAT, participants homozygous for the 10R allele, which had previously associated with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder, showed a stronger overall startle response. In sum, this thesis comprises data on interindividual differences in an electrophysiological and a hormonal endophenotype across the life span and their association with serotonergic and dopaminergic function based on genetic variation. One major finding is the clear evidence for the influence of serotonergic polymorphisms on the startle response in young adults while in contrast in older adults genetic variation in the dopaminergic system exerted considerable influence. These differences might be due to developmental processes in the different stages of life although cohort effects and effects of different recruitment strategies can also not be ruled out. Furthermore, there were significant differences regarding the genetic influence on the acoustic startle reflex and cortisol stress response in one and the same sample which might be due to methodological differences of the two paradigms as well as differences in their underlying neuronal circuits. In conclusion, this thesis supports the acoustic startle reflex and the cortisol stress response as valuable endophenotypes and thus indicators for underlying neurobiological circuits although some methodological issues remain. It also highlights the importance of taking developmental factors and changes over the course of life into account. Finally, this thesis emphasizes the necessity to include reliably and validly assessed past experienced events in molecular genetic studies in order to understand the interplay between genetic and environmental factors in shaping (endo)-phenotypes.

"Το τσάι του βουνού" (στο οποίο ανήκουν πολλά είδη του γένους Sideritis) καταναλώνεται παραδοσιακά στην Ελλάδα ως ηρεμιστικό αλλά και ενάντια του κρυολογήματος και αλλεργιών. Η παρούσα μελέτη διερευνά την πιθανή νευροπροστατευτική δράση του ανωτέρω φυτού και εστιάζεται: α) στην επίδραση του αφεψήματος του φυτού Sideritis clandestina subsp. clandestina σε συμπεριφερικές παραμέτρους ενηλίκων μυών (άγχος/φόβος, μνήμη/μάθηση), β) στην επίδραση του αφεψήματος του ανωτέρω φυτού σε βιοχημικές παραμέτρους και πιο συγκεκριμένα στη συγκέντρωση της ανηγμένης γλουταθειόνης, στην υπεροξείδωση λιπιδίων και στην ενεργότητα δυο ισομορφών του ενζύμου της ακετυλοχολινεστεράσης (AChE) και γ) στην in vitro πιθανή αντιχολινεστερασική και αντιαμυλοειδική δράση του υδατικού εκχυλίσματος του φυτού. Το φυτικό αφέψημα σε συγκέντρωση 4% w/v χορηγoόταν καθημερινά σε αρσενικούς Balb-c μύες για περίοδο 40 ημερών. Για την εκτίμηση του άγχους/φόβου χρησιμοποιήθηκε α) η δοκιμασία του Υπερυψωμένου Λαβυρίνθου (χρόνος παραμονής των μυών στους ανοιχτούς βραχίονες ως προς το συνολικό χρόνο παραμονής στους ανοιχτούς και κλειστούς βραχίονες της συσκευής) και β) η δοκιμασία του Θιγμοτακτισμού (τάση παραμονής των μυών πλησίον των τοιχωμάτων του ειδικού κλωβού). Η μνήμη-μάθηση μελετήθηκε με τη δοκιμασία της Παθητικής Αποφυγής η οποία βασίζεται στην παρατήρηση ότι τα πειραματόζωα θα θυμούνται ότι μια συγκεκριμένη αντίδρασή τους θα έχει αρνητικές συνέπειες (εφαρμογή επώδυνου ηλεκτρικού ερεθίσματος στα άκρα). Οι οξειδωτικές/αντιοξειδωτικές ιδιότητες του φυτικού αφεψήματος προσδιορίστηκαν με εκτίμηση α) της συγκέντρωσης του αντιοξειδωτικού δείκτη της ανηγμένης γλουταθειόνης, η οποία στηρίζεται στο σχηματισμό ενός φθορίζοντος συμπλόκου μετά την αντίδραση της ο-φθαλαλδεϋδης με τη γλουταθειόνη και υστιδύλ-ενώσεις και β) τα επίπεδα λιπιδικής υπεροξείδωσης μέσω προσδιορισμού των επιπέδων του οξειδωτικού δείκτη της μηλονικής διαλδεΰδης που στηρίζεται στο σχηματισμό του φθορίζοντος συμπλόκου που δημιουργείται όταν η μηλονική αλδεΰδη αντιδρά με το θειοβαρβιτουρικό οξύ. Η ενεργότητα του ενζύμου της ακετυλοχολινεστεράσης (AChE) τόσο ex vivo όσο και in vitro προσδιορίστηκε με τη χρήση της χρωματομετρικής μεθόδου του Ellman, όπου ως υπόστρωμα του ενζύμου χρησιμοποιήθηκε η ιωδιούχος ακετυλοθειοχολίνη. Κατά τον προσδιορισμό της ενεργότητας του ενζύμου in vitro ως εσωτερικό πρότυπο χρησιμοποιήθηκε η γαλανταμίνη, ένας ισχυρός αναστολέας του ενζύμου. Η πιθανή αντιαμυλοειδκή δράση του φυτικού εκχυλίσματος μελετήθηκε με τη μέθοδο της θειοφλαβίνης-Τ. Τα αποτελέσματα της δοκιμασίας του Υπερυψωμένου Λαβύρινθου έδειξαν ότι ο χρόνος παραμονής στους ανοιχτούς βραχίονες ως προς το συνολικό χρόνο παραμονής στους ανοιχτούς και κλειστούς βραχίονες της συσκευής είναι στατιστικώς σημαντικά αυξημένος για την ομάδα των ζώων που κατανάλωσαν το φυτικό αφέψημα σε σύγκριση με τους μάρτυρες. Από τη δοκιμασία του Θιγμοτακτισμού για την πειραματική ομάδα φάνηκε ότι ο χρόνος θιγμοτακτισμού μειώνεται και ο αριθμός των εισόδων στην κεντρική περιοχή του ανοιχτού πεδίου αυξάνεται για κάθε 5 λεπτά παραμονής (εκ του συνολικού διαστήματος των 30 λεπτών) στη συσκευή εν συγκρίσει με την ομάδα των μαρτύρων. Τέλος, κατά τη δοκιμασία της Παθητικής Αποφυγής ο αρχικός και τελικός λανθάνων χρόνος (IL, STL αντίστοιχα) φάνηκε να μη διαφέρουν μεταξύ των δυο ομάδων πειραματοζώων. Η πόση του φυτικού αφεψήματος επηρέασε με ιστοειδικό τρόπο τις υπό μελέτη βιοχημικές παραμέτρους, καθώς παρατηρήθηκε αύξηση των επιπέδων της ανηγμένης γλουταθειόνης και μείωση της υπεροξείδωσης λιπιδίων στον ολικό εγκέφαλο (-παρ/δας) των ενηλίκων μυών, η οποία συνοδευόταν από αλλαγές στις επιμέρους εγκεφαλικές περιοχές της παρεγκεφαλίδας και του μεσεγκεφάλου ενώ ο εγκεφαλικός φλοιός ακολούθησε το πρότυπο του ήπατος και έδειξε να μην επηρεάζεται. Σε σχέση με την ενεργότητα των δυο ισομορφών του ενζύμου της AChE παρατηρήθηκε αναστολή στον ολικό εγκέφαλο (-παρ/δας) της πειραματικής ομάδας συγκρινόμενη με τους μάρτυρες, η οποία συνοδεύτηκε από μείωση στις επιμέρους περιοχές του εγκεφαλικού φλοιού, του ραβδωτού και του ιπποκάμπου. Το υδατικό εκχύλισμα του Sideritis clandestina subsp. clandestina παρουσίασε: 10% αντιχολινεστερασική δράση in vitro σε αντίθεση με τον αναστολέα της γαλανταμίνης ο οποίος ανέστειλλε το ένζυμο σε ποσοστό 85%. Τέλος, το φυτικό εκχυλίσματος σε συγκέντρωση 0,3mg/mL ανέστειλε τη συσσωμάτωση του Αβ πεπτιδίου σε ποσοστό περίπου 85%. Με βάση τα ανωτέρω το «τσάι του βουνού» επιδεικνύει τάση για αγχόλυση, ενισχύει την αντιοξειδωτική άμυνα, έχει αντιχολινεστερασικές ιδιότητες και επιφέρει ανασταλτικό αποτέλεσμα στη συσσωμάτωση του Αβ αμυλοειδούς. Οι δράσεις του αυτές οφείλονται πιθανόν στην πολυφαινολική του σύσταση και οι μηχανισμοί που εμπλέκονται χρήζουν περαιτέρω διερεύνησης. / “Mountain tea” (various species of Sideritis) has been traditionally consumed in Greece as a calmative and against common cold and allergies. The aim of the present study was to examine the neuroprotective role of the above plant and focus on: a) the effect of tea drinking in behavioral parameters of adult mice (fear/anxiety, learning and memory), b) the effect of tea drinking in antioxidative biochemical parameters of adult mice brain and liver, i.e. the concentration of reduced glutathione (GSH), the levels of lipid peroxidation and the activity of the two acetylcholinesterase (AChE) isoforms, and c) in vitro putative anticholinesterase and antiamyloid actions of Sideritis clandestina subsp. clandestina infusion. The beverage was provided (4g/100 mL, daily) for 40 days to adult male Balb-c/jice. Fear/anxiety was assessed by the measurement of i) the percentage of time spent in the open arms of the elevated plus maze apparatus and ii) the thigmotactic response (the tendency to remain close to vertical surfaces) of adult mice in an open-field. Learning and memory was assessed using the step-through passive avoidance task which is based on the obseravation that the experimental mice remember that a specific reaction has negative effects (electric foot shock). The oxidant/antioxidant properties of tea drinking was determined via measurement of a) the concentration of GSH (antioxidant marker), which is based on the formation of a fluorescent complex after the reaction of o-pthalaldehyde with glutathione and hystidyl compounds and b) the levels of malondialdehyde (MDA) (oxidant marker) by monitoring thiobarbituric acid reactive substance formation. The ex vivo and in vitro AChE activity was measured using the colorimetric method of Ellman where acetylthiocholine iodide was used as a substrate. Galantamine, a strong inhibitor of AChE, was used as a standard during in vitro determination of the enzyme activity. The effect of the infusion on amyloid-beta aggregation was studied in vitro with a thioflavine T - based fluorescence assay. Tea drinking caused statistically significant a) increase of the time percentage that animals spent into the open arms of the elevated plus maze apparatus and b) decrease of thigmotaxis time and increase of the time that animals entered to the central area of open field. Initial and Step-Through Latency showed no significant difference between two animal groups. The beverage also affected the biochemical parameters examined in the present study, in a tissue specific manner. More specifically, adult mice whole brain (-Ce) displayed increased reduced glutathione content and decreased lipid peroxidation levels compared to the controls. Similar changes were also observed in cerebellum and midbrain while cerebral cortex and liver were not affected. Regarding the activity of the two AChE isoforms, tea intake caused significant inhibition of these enzymes’ activity in whole brain (-Ce), compared with the control group. In agreement, cerebral cortex, striatum and hippocampus dispayed similar inhibition in both AChE isoforms activity after tea consuming. Sideritis clandestina subsp. clandestina infusion exhibited 10% in vitro anticholinesterase activity while galantamine inhibited the enzyme in a percentage of 85%. Moreover, tea infusion in a concentration of 0,3 mg/mL exhibited 85% inhibition of Ab1-40 fibrillogenesis in vitro, indicating, thus, strongly a putative antiamyloid action of Sideritis clandestina subsp. clandestinα. Conclusively, our results suggest that mountain tea infusion exhibits anxiolytic-like action, antioxidant and anticholintesterase properties and a strong, in vitro, inhibitory effect on amyloid-beta’s aggregation. These activities are most probably due to the polyphenols contained in Sideritis clandestina subsp. clandestina infusion; the underlying mechanisms need, though, further, in deep investigation.