MSCAGR (Animal Science) / Department of Animal Science

Department of Animal Science / MSCAGR (Animal Science)

MSCAGR / Department of Animal Science

Bovine maternal antibodies are not transferred across the placenta during pregnancy and newborn calves are unable to produce their own antibodies within the first weeks after birth. As neonates are born agammaglobulinemic they need to acquire immunoglobulins (Ig) from their dam’s colostrum to acquire passive immunity. Colostrum fed to dairy calves, which is not timeous, of inadequate quantity and of unverified quality, might result in decreased neonate health. The aim of this study was to conduct a survey of the management of colostrum on commercial dairy farms, to estimate the quality of the Ig titre of colostrum fed to neonates and finally to recommend methods and techniques critical to the successful management of colostrum. The methods used included a questionnaire which was conducted as a structured interview on a one-on-one basis among 50 randomly selected commercial dairy farmers in the Eastern Cape Coastal Region of South Africa. The estimation of the colostrum Ig titre of colostrum fed to neonates was made by the on-farm measurement of specific gravity (SG) by making use of a commercially available KRUUSE colostrometer (Fleenor and Stott, 1980). A pooled colostrum sample, from each of the four quarters, from 90 randomly selected post-partum cows was collected on a leader commercial dairy farm. This method was used to compare colostrum samples from cows run under similar management practices. These samples were collected for analysis within 6 hrs of calving and were done over 3 seasons (autumn, winter and spring). Survey - The colostrum mass and timing of the initial feed are the most important factors when aiming to achieve adequate passive immunity. The results of the survey indicated that most of the farmers of this region feed an inadequate mass of colostrum (volume and Ig concentration) and only 52% of farmers surveyed feed colostrum less than 6 hrs post- partum. The majority (78%) of surveyed farmers did not follow up their initial colostrum feeding.Colostrum sampling - At the trial site only 10% (9 from 90 colostrum samples measured), were found to be of adequate SG quality. Cow age (parity), season of calving and colostrum temperature had an influence on the estimated colostrum SG. However, season of calving was found to have the greatest influence on SG values. These results were consistent with findings from previous studies that SG values from the cooler months were higher than those of the hotter months. Tables 4.7 (P=0.330), 4.8 (P=0.012) and 4.9 (P=0.005) showed that regression analysis confirmed that LS means across seasons were inadequately below the required 50 mg/ml Ig required for sufficient passive immunity. Tables 4.1 (P=0.164), 4.2 (P=0.011) and 4.3 (P=0.021) shows that season of calving had a much greater effect on CR than did parity, Table 4.5 (P=0.177). Table 4.4 shows that colostrum temperature has an significant effect on SG value. Recommendations for methods and techniques critical to the successful management of colostrum were made. These recommendations were based on the analysis of the data obtained from the questionnaire and the on-farm colostrum sampling study. The most important and critical management practices surveyed includes the timing of the cow and calf separation where it was found that only 30 from the 50 (60%) of the farms surveyed separate calves and dams at day (0), 19 from 50 farms (38%) separate at day (3-5) and 1 from 50 farms (2%) separate only at day 7 or later. Thus 40% of surveyed farms allow cows to nurse their calves. With regards to early exposure to pathogens this is a high risk management practice. Further to that, only 2 from 50 surveyed farms (4%) measure the colostrum quality fed to their calves and 48 from 50 farms (96%) feed colostrum of unmeasured quality. The mass of colostrum fed to calves is an important parameter for successful transmission of Ig. In the survey it was found that 28 from 50 farms (56%) feed 2L – 4L of colostrum and 11 from 50 farms (22%) feed 2L of colostrum. Thus 78% of farms feed approximately 50% of the amount of colostrum required for successful transmission of Ig. Finally only 1 from 50 farms (2%) freeze excess colostrum and 1 from 50 farms (2%) pool excess colostrum. Both these farms measure colostrum quality by colostrometer. / Agriculture Animal Health and Human Ecology / M. Sc. (Agriculture)

This study was done in the rural areas of uThukela District in KwaZulu-Natal. The objectives were to determine pig production and management practices used by farmers in rearing pigs in rural areas; to establish the role of pigs in social and economic lives of the people; and to characterize and determine constrains and opportunities of pig farming in rural areas. A farming systems approach was used in conjunction with a cross-sectional survey method using a structured questionnaire in face-to-face interviews with farmers for the collection of data. The study involved 4 local rural municipalities with a population of 4205 people who owned 2555 pigs. The sample size was 533 pig farmers/respondents. The data included the demographic characteristics of pig farmers, pig production and management practices, the role of pigs in both the social and economic lives of people and the constraints and opportunities of pig farming. The data were analyzed to determine simple means and frequencies. The results showed that 20% of pigs were reared in intensive systems and 80% in extensive systems in the district. Each village owned an average of 5 pigs. There were more female respondents (60%) than males, and also female respondents owned more (65%) pigs than males. Most of respondents (99%) were Zulu speaking people and only 1% was from other cultural groups. Majority of the respondents (74%) were unemployed, 16% were pensioners and only 10% were employed. Those who were employed kept more pigs than the other groups. Over one third of the respondents had primary (34.5%) and secondary (35.3%) education; and 2.7% had college education, while 27.5% had no formal education at all. Sixty-two percent of the older respondents between the age of 46 and 65 years kept more pigs than younger farmers. The collective incomes of the communities from salaries, pensions, and sales of livestock and crops per annum were substantial. The average land size per household ranged from 0.01 ha to 56 ha. Male respondents owned more land (1.68 ha) than female respondents (0.96 ha). Similarly, employed people owned more land (2.49 ha) than pensioners (1.26 ha) and the unemployed people (1.04 ha). Respondents kept other livestock species such as cattle, sheep, goats and chickens. Ninety percent of households kept chickens in addition to cattle (53%) and goats (49.3%). They also grew crops such as maize, potatoes, vegetables (cabbage, spinach, tomatoes, carrots, beetroots and onions) and fruits (peaches, apples and grapes). They kept pigs for home consumption (63%), source of income (33%), source of manure (3%) and for other reasons (1%). More employed people (68%) sold pigs for extra income, while 91% pensioners and 81% unemployed people used pigs for home consumption. Marketing channels included pension pay points, abattoirs, butcheries and neighbourhoods. Abattoir sales accounted for 10% and the most common venues were Amblecyte (40%) and Cato Ridge (27%). Selling of pigs occurred throughout the year, with the peak in winter (May/July). Majority of farmers (59%) used their own transport to deliver pigs to the selling points or they used contractors (41%). Pigs were sold at the age of 5 to 18 months old. Farmers sold live pigs and pork to the communities. Some farmers sold live pigs only, while others sold pork only or both pork and live pigs. Religion and culture had little influence on pig farming. Most farmers (88%) had no religious or cultural influences, while 7% were influenced by religion and 1% was influenced by culture. The most preferred meat among the communities was chicken meat, followed by beef, pork, mutton and chevon. Half of the respondents had >6 years of experience in pig farming, 34.9% had 2 – 5 years of experience and 14.8% were beginners. The breeds of pigs kept in the district included indigenous breeds, Large White, Landrace, Duroc and crosses of indigenous breeds with Large White and Landrace. Farmers bought breeding stock within their communities or they selected breeding stock from their own herds. Very few farmers have ever received any type of training in pig farming. The training was provided by the KZN Provincial Government, Zakhe Agricultural College and private farms. The training took 2-3 days of workshops, 2-3 weeks of short courses or 3-6 months of hands-on training on private farms. The training improved the performance of sows within the communities. Only 41% of farmers practised controlled stock breeding, which improved the farrowing rate and litter size. About one third (32%) of farmers bred their gilts at 6 – 8 months, while 21.2% bred them at 8-12 months, and 29% bred them after 12 months. The farrowing rate of indigenous sows was one litter per annum compared with the majority of Landrace and Duroc sows that farrowed twice a year. Some farmers (28%) reported that they routinely observed farrowing, while 72% of them said they never knew when the sows farrowed until they saw sows and new litters coming back to their pens after grazing in the veld. The litter sizes varied from ≤ 7 to ≥ 10. Half of the indigenous sows farrowed ≤ 7 piglets per litter, while 41% had 8-10 piglets; compared with 49% Large White and 44% Duroc that farrowed 8-10 and ≥ 10 per litter, respectively. Majority of farmers (66.1%) did not wean their piglets at all, which was associated with low farrowing rate. However, farmers who sold weaners for income weaned their piglets between 3 weeks and 3 months. This was associated with higher farrowing rate of sows. Piglet mortality was mainly due to worm infestation (26%), loss of hair (13%), lice and mange infestation (16.4%) and diarrhoea (5.6%). Despite that only 10% of farmers consulted the local Department of Veterinary Services. Some farmers (44.2%) said that they did not know that they could make use of Veterinary services, and 28% of them said it was a waste of time. Majority of farmers (80%) used home kitchen swill and brewer’s grains to feed their pigs. Only 16% of farmers bought commercial feeds and 2% fed them on maize grains and vegetables. Commercial feeds were bought from Farm Save (48%), Afgri (19%) and Epol (7%). Some farmers (65.4%) weighed feed before feeding, while 35% did not weigh feed at all. Water was provided at feeding time, ad libitum or several times a day. Farmers disposed of carcasses by eating them, feeding to their dogs, or throwing them away. Over half of the farmers (52%) did not take carcasses for post mortem, while 26% did not know that they could send carcasses for post mortem and 20% said they could not afford the cost. The study concluded that pigs have a vital social and economic role in the lives of the rural people of KZN for income generation and household consumption. The main constraints are wide spread poverty and lack of management skills in pig production, nutrition, health,housing and management. Government intervention is necessary to help farmers to improve pig production and management as a means of poverty alleviation and household food security. / Agriculture and  Animal Health / M.Sc. (Agriculture)

Bovine maternal antibodies are not transferred across the placenta during pregnancy and newborn calves are unable to produce their own antibodies within the first weeks after birth. As neonates are born agammaglobulinemic they need to acquire immunoglobulins (Ig) from their dam’s colostrum to acquire passive immunity. Colostrum fed to dairy calves, which is not timeous, of inadequate quantity and of unverified quality, might result in decreased neonate health. The aim of this study was to conduct a survey of the management of colostrum on commercial dairy farms, to estimate the quality of the Ig titre of colostrum fed to neonates and finally to recommend methods and techniques critical to the successful management of colostrum. The methods used included a questionnaire which was conducted as a structured interview on a one-on-one basis among 50 randomly selected commercial dairy farmers in the Eastern Cape Coastal Region of South Africa. The estimation of the colostrum Ig titre of colostrum fed to neonates was made by the on-farm measurement of specific gravity (SG) by making use of a commercially available KRUUSE colostrometer (Fleenor and Stott, 1980). A pooled colostrum sample, from each of the four quarters, from 90 randomly selected post-partum cows was collected on a leader commercial dairy farm. This method was used to compare colostrum samples from cows run under similar management practices. These samples were collected for analysis within 6 hrs of calving and were done over 3 seasons (autumn, winter and spring). Survey - The colostrum mass and timing of the initial feed are the most important factors when aiming to achieve adequate passive immunity. The results of the survey indicated that most of the farmers of this region feed an inadequate mass of colostrum (volume and Ig concentration) and only 52% of farmers surveyed feed colostrum less than 6 hrs post- partum. The majority (78%) of surveyed farmers did not follow up their initial colostrum feeding.Colostrum sampling - At the trial site only 10% (9 from 90 colostrum samples measured), were found to be of adequate SG quality. Cow age (parity), season of calving and colostrum temperature had an influence on the estimated colostrum SG. However, season of calving was found to have the greatest influence on SG values. These results were consistent with findings from previous studies that SG values from the cooler months were higher than those of the hotter months. Tables 4.7 (P=0.330), 4.8 (P=0.012) and 4.9 (P=0.005) showed that regression analysis confirmed that LS means across seasons were inadequately below the required 50 mg/ml Ig required for sufficient passive immunity. Tables 4.1 (P=0.164), 4.2 (P=0.011) and 4.3 (P=0.021) shows that season of calving had a much greater effect on CR than did parity, Table 4.5 (P=0.177). Table 4.4 shows that colostrum temperature has an significant effect on SG value. Recommendations for methods and techniques critical to the successful management of colostrum were made. These recommendations were based on the analysis of the data obtained from the questionnaire and the on-farm colostrum sampling study. The most important and critical management practices surveyed includes the timing of the cow and calf separation where it was found that only 30 from the 50 (60%) of the farms surveyed separate calves and dams at day (0), 19 from 50 farms (38%) separate at day (3-5) and 1 from 50 farms (2%) separate only at day 7 or later. Thus 40% of surveyed farms allow cows to nurse their calves. With regards to early exposure to pathogens this is a high risk management practice. Further to that, only 2 from 50 surveyed farms (4%) measure the colostrum quality fed to their calves and 48 from 50 farms (96%) feed colostrum of unmeasured quality. The mass of colostrum fed to calves is an important parameter for successful transmission of Ig. In the survey it was found that 28 from 50 farms (56%) feed 2L – 4L of colostrum and 11 from 50 farms (22%) feed 2L of colostrum. Thus 78% of farms feed approximately 50% of the amount of colostrum required for successful transmission of Ig. Finally only 1 from 50 farms (2%) freeze excess colostrum and 1 from 50 farms (2%) pool excess colostrum. Both these farms measure colostrum quality by colostrometer. / Agriculture Animal Health and Human Ecology / M. Sc. (Agriculture)

The broad objective of the study was to determine the economic value of local pigs in marketand subsistence-oriented production systems in communal areas of Southern Africa. Data were collected from 288 households to investigate farmer perceptions, effects on pig production and handling of disease outbreaks such as classical swine fever (CSF) in market- and subsistenceoriented production systems. The utilisation of local pigs in these market- and subsistenceoriented production systems in improving people‟s welfare was evaluated. Climate change was identified by farmers in these production systems as a major constraint to pig production hence an experiment was carried out in the hottest season to determine diurnal heat-related physiological and behavioural responses in Large White (LW) and South African local pigs. The same genotypes were used to determine effects of diurnal heat-related stress on their growth performance. Choice experiment was done to determine farmer preferences for local pig traits and implicit prices for these traits in CSF-affected and unaffected areas that were under subsistence- and market-oriented production systems. In this experiment, the importance of heat tolerance was assessed relative to other productive and climate change adaptation traits. Significantly more pigs were culled in the CSF-affected areas that were market-oriented (8.0 ± 1.76) than subsistence-oriented (4.1 ± 1.00) production system. The risk of parasites and disease challenges was high in subsistence-oriented production system and coastal areas. In both production systems, CSF was perceived as destructive since the culling of pigs affected pork availability and income generation. The high risk of disease outbreaks and threat of climate change caused farmers in subsistence-oriented production system to select local pigs for their adaptive traits while those in the market-oriented production system focused on productive imported pigs. Farmers (83 %) indicated that they wanted pig genotypes that were adapted to climate change effects such as hot conditions. Local pigs were found to have superior heat tolerance over LW pigs (P < 0.05) in terms of lower heart rate and skin surface temperature. Frequency per day and duration for behavioural heat loss activities such as wallowing, sleeping in a prostrate posture and sprawling in slurry were also lower (P < 0.05) for local than LW pigs. The superiority of heat tolerance of local over LW pigs was further confirmed by their uncompromised growth performance under high diurnal temperatures. The Pearson‟s product moment correlation coefficient between temperature and feed conversion ratio for LW pigs was strongly positive (r = 0.50; P < 0.001) unlike the weak and positive correlation for local pigs (r = 0.20; P < 0.05). There was a quadratic relationship between temperature and average daily gain (ADG) for both pig genotypes. The regression coefficients for ADG were higher (P < 0.001) for LW than local pigs. It was concluded that at high ambient temperatures, performance of local pigs was less compromised than for LW pigs. Although local pigs were found to be heat tolerant, results of choice experiment showed that this trait was not selected for relative to other traits. Keeping pigs that required bought-in feeds, fell sick often and produced low pork quality (eating quality based on farmer perceptions) negatively affected farmers‟ livelihoods more in subsistence- than market-oriented production system. Farmers in market-oriented production system derived more benefit from productive traits such as heavier slaughter weights and large litter size than subsistence-oriented farmers. Under the subsistence-oriented production system, farmers in CSF-affected areas placed high prices on adaptive traits than the unaffected areas. Subsistence-oriented farmers who were affected by CSF wanted a total compensation price of R10 944.00 (USD1563.43) for keeping a pig genotype with unfavourable traits when compared to R4235.00 (USD605.00) for their CSF-unaffected counterparts. Implicit prices for traits could not be determined for market-oriented production system. It was concluded that farmers in CSFaffected areas placed high economic values on pig traits than farmers from the CSF-unaffected areas. The findings suggest that adapted local pigs can be promoted in subsistence-oriented production systems while productive imported pigs and their crosses with local pigs can be kept in market-oriented production systems.

The objective of this study was to compare the nutrient status of full scavenging and semi-scavenging village chicken production systems. The semi-scavenging chickens were given broiler finisher mash between 14-24 weeks of age, whilst the full scavenging relied on natural foraging. The study also sought to compare the quality of meat from chickens from the two systems. After slaughtering the chickens, the crop contents were physically separated and analysed for chemical composition. Meat pH and colour were measured on the breast muscle of individual carcasses and a consumer sensory evaluation was also done on the breast muscle. The mean crop content weights per day were significantly higher in full scavenging chickens (±16.7g/day biomass) than in semi-scavenging chickens (±9.14g/day). Dry matter, calcium, and phosphorus levels were higher in the crop contents of the full than in the semi-scavenging chickens but crude protein, crude fibre and metabolisable energy were higher in the latter system. Semi-scavenging (1.3 ± 0.05kg) carcasses were heavier (P<0.05) than full scavenging ones (1.0 ± 0.06kg). The ultimate pH (24h) (pHu) of meat from full scavenging chickens (6.0 ± 0.03) was higher (P<0.05) than that of meat from the semi-scavenging chickens (5.7 ± 0.04). Meat from the full scavenging chickens had higher L* values (60 ± 1.2) than meat from the semi-scavenging chickens (47 ± 0.8). The a* value of meat of full scavenging chickens was significantly (P<0.05) less (4 ± 0.4) than that of meat from semi-scavenging chickens (15 ± 1.3). There was a significant positive (0.60) correlation between pHu and L* of meat from village chickens across rearing systems. The semi-scavenging system meat had better sensory attributes than the meat from the full scavenging system. Female consumers scored the typical flavour of village chicken meat across rearing systems higher (P< 0.05) than male consumers. The Shona consumers scored the meat higher (P< 0.05) than the Xhosa, Zulu, Ndebele and other tribes for initial juiciness, first bite impression and muscle fibre and tenderness of the chicken across rearing systems. Consumers scored of the meat from the semi-scavenging system higher (P<0.05) on initial juiciness (4.3 ± 0.20), first bite impression (4.2 ± 0.197), muscle fibre tenderness (4.5 ± 0.217) than meat from the full scavenging chickens. There were positive correlations (0.46) between aroma intensity and overall flavour intensity across both rearing systems. The semi-scavenging system produced better carcass characteristics, lighter (L*) meat and more consumer acceptable meat than full scavenging chickens. Therefore the full scavenging rearing system had better nutrient composition in its scavenging feed resource base, although the semi-scavenging systems produced chickens with better carcass, meat pH, colour and sensory characteristics than the full scavenging chickens.

This study was done in the rural areas of uThukela District in KwaZulu-Natal. The objectives were to determine pig production and management practices used by farmers in rearing pigs in rural areas; to establish the role of pigs in social and economic lives of the people; and to characterize and determine constrains and opportunities of pig farming in rural areas. A farming systems approach was used in conjunction with a cross-sectional survey method using a structured questionnaire in face-to-face interviews with farmers for the collection of data. The study involved 4 local rural municipalities with a population of 4205 people who owned 2555 pigs. The sample size was 533 pig farmers/respondents. The data included the demographic characteristics of pig farmers, pig production and management practices, the role of pigs in both the social and economic lives of people and the constraints and opportunities of pig farming. The data were analyzed to determine simple means and frequencies. The results showed that 20% of pigs were reared in intensive systems and 80% in extensive systems in the district. Each village owned an average of 5 pigs. There were more female respondents (60%) than males, and also female respondents owned more (65%) pigs than males. Most of respondents (99%) were Zulu speaking people and only 1% was from other cultural groups. Majority of the respondents (74%) were unemployed, 16% were pensioners and only 10% were employed. Those who were employed kept more pigs than the other groups. Over one third of the respondents had primary (34.5%) and secondary (35.3%) education; and 2.7% had college education, while 27.5% had no formal education at all. Sixty-two percent of the older respondents between the age of 46 and 65 years kept more pigs than younger farmers. The collective incomes of the communities from salaries, pensions, and sales of livestock and crops per annum were substantial. The average land size per household ranged from 0.01 ha to 56 ha. Male respondents owned more land (1.68 ha) than female respondents (0.96 ha). Similarly, employed people owned more land (2.49 ha) than pensioners (1.26 ha) and the unemployed people (1.04 ha). Respondents kept other livestock species such as cattle, sheep, goats and chickens. Ninety percent of households kept chickens in addition to cattle (53%) and goats (49.3%). They also grew crops such as maize, potatoes, vegetables (cabbage, spinach, tomatoes, carrots, beetroots and onions) and fruits (peaches, apples and grapes). They kept pigs for home consumption (63%), source of income (33%), source of manure (3%) and for other reasons (1%). More employed people (68%) sold pigs for extra income, while 91% pensioners and 81% unemployed people used pigs for home consumption. Marketing channels included pension pay points, abattoirs, butcheries and neighbourhoods. Abattoir sales accounted for 10% and the most common venues were Amblecyte (40%) and Cato Ridge (27%). Selling of pigs occurred throughout the year, with the peak in winter (May/July). Majority of farmers (59%) used their own transport to deliver pigs to the selling points or they used contractors (41%). Pigs were sold at the age of 5 to 18 months old. Farmers sold live pigs and pork to the communities. Some farmers sold live pigs only, while others sold pork only or both pork and live pigs. Religion and culture had little influence on pig farming. Most farmers (88%) had no religious or cultural influences, while 7% were influenced by religion and 1% was influenced by culture. The most preferred meat among the communities was chicken meat, followed by beef, pork, mutton and chevon. Half of the respondents had >6 years of experience in pig farming, 34.9% had 2 – 5 years of experience and 14.8% were beginners. The breeds of pigs kept in the district included indigenous breeds, Large White, Landrace, Duroc and crosses of indigenous breeds with Large White and Landrace. Farmers bought breeding stock within their communities or they selected breeding stock from their own herds. Very few farmers have ever received any type of training in pig farming. The training was provided by the KZN Provincial Government, Zakhe Agricultural College and private farms. The training took 2-3 days of workshops, 2-3 weeks of short courses or 3-6 months of hands-on training on private farms. The training improved the performance of sows within the communities. Only 41% of farmers practised controlled stock breeding, which improved the farrowing rate and litter size. About one third (32%) of farmers bred their gilts at 6 – 8 months, while 21.2% bred them at 8-12 months, and 29% bred them after 12 months. The farrowing rate of indigenous sows was one litter per annum compared with the majority of Landrace and Duroc sows that farrowed twice a year. Some farmers (28%) reported that they routinely observed farrowing, while 72% of them said they never knew when the sows farrowed until they saw sows and new litters coming back to their pens after grazing in the veld. The litter sizes varied from ≤ 7 to ≥ 10. Half of the indigenous sows farrowed ≤ 7 piglets per litter, while 41% had 8-10 piglets; compared with 49% Large White and 44% Duroc that farrowed 8-10 and ≥ 10 per litter, respectively. Majority of farmers (66.1%) did not wean their piglets at all, which was associated with low farrowing rate. However, farmers who sold weaners for income weaned their piglets between 3 weeks and 3 months. This was associated with higher farrowing rate of sows. Piglet mortality was mainly due to worm infestation (26%), loss of hair (13%), lice and mange infestation (16.4%) and diarrhoea (5.6%). Despite that only 10% of farmers consulted the local Department of Veterinary Services. Some farmers (44.2%) said that they did not know that they could make use of Veterinary services, and 28% of them said it was a waste of time. Majority of farmers (80%) used home kitchen swill and brewer’s grains to feed their pigs. Only 16% of farmers bought commercial feeds and 2% fed them on maize grains and vegetables. Commercial feeds were bought from Farm Save (48%), Afgri (19%) and Epol (7%). Some farmers (65.4%) weighed feed before feeding, while 35% did not weigh feed at all. Water was provided at feeding time, ad libitum or several times a day. Farmers disposed of carcasses by eating them, feeding to their dogs, or throwing them away. Over half of the farmers (52%) did not take carcasses for post mortem, while 26% did not know that they could send carcasses for post mortem and 20% said they could not afford the cost. The study concluded that pigs have a vital social and economic role in the lives of the rural people of KZN for income generation and household consumption. The main constraints are wide spread poverty and lack of management skills in pig production, nutrition, health,housing and management. Government intervention is necessary to help farmers to improve pig production and management as a means of poverty alleviation and household food security. / Agriculture and  Animal Health / M. Sc. (Agriculture)

Department of Animal Science / PhD (Agric)