The aim of this longitudinal study was to examine the potential of coaching to develop female entrepreneurs' self-efficacy through learning and development. This was achieved by firstly conducting a needs analysis, which explored the potential of an e-coaching programme for female entrepreneurs in the North West of England. Secondly, implementing an e-coaching programme called TEC (Tailored E-Coaching) for female entrepreneurs in the North West of England and exploring the impact of the programme, specifically examining female entrepreneurs' learning development with regard to entrepreneurial self efficacy, general entrepreneurial attitudes and locus of control, compared to a control group who did not receive the coaching intervention. The study consisted of two stages, with two time points in stage two (pre and post programme). A mixed method approach was used, whereby qualitative and quantitative data were collected. The main barriers faced by female entrepreneurs appear to be based on access to funding and finance, balancing domestic responsibilities and work, a lack of human capital, a lack of social capital and lack of confidence. Women often dismiss entrepreneurial endeavours because they believe that they do not have the required skills (Wilson, Kickul and Marlino, 2007). In addition, they do not appear to be accessing the support that is currently available, particularly when compared with male entrepreneurs (Stranger, 2004; Fielden et al, 2003). However, there is limited empirical research examining female entrepreneurs' requirement regarding business support provision. One form of professional one-to-one support that may have the potential to overcome these barriers to entrepreneurial activity is coaching. Longitudinal empirical research examining the effectiveness of coaching and the learning processes in coaching relationships is scarce, with an absence of research using control groups (Smither and London, 2003). Thirty women were involved in stage one of the study. In stage two of the study, sixty female entrepreneurs (coachees and coaches) commenced a coaching relationship for six months and twenty six female entrepreneurs signed up to a control group (those not receiving the coaching intervention). The aim of the coaching programme was primarily to use instant messaging for the majority of coaching meetings. The relationship lasted approximately six months (2006-2007). Qualitative data was analysed using content analysis and quantitative questionnaire data was analysed using paired sample t-tests. The study found that coachees' learning development resulted in increased levels of entrepreneurial self-efficacy and general entrepreneurial attitudes in a range ofkey areas and increased internality regarding locus of control. In contrast, the control group did not show any increase in entrepreneurial self-efficacy and showed a decrease in general entrepreneurial attitudes. Coaches developed their coachees through a range of learning processes, for example, enactive mastery and the clarification of business goals, vicarious experience through shared experiences and verbal persuasion through validation. The study found that online coaching has a variety of advantages, e.g. convenience, ease of access, and time to reflect on information.

The study investigates female empowerment through online entrepreneurship on Taobao in Chinese society, from female entrepreneurs’ individual perspectives. Thus, the study is positioned in the dynamic e-commerce landscape of China.   This small-scale case study has been conducted, which involves 14 female online storeowners on Taobao. Online female entrepreneurs constitute the base of this study, and share their accounts of the dramatic changes in their lives after they initiated their online businesses. The entire study departs from their actual experiences and opinions, which provide multiple perspectives, so as to garner further insights into the dominant research of female empowerment within the context of e-commerce. Their actual experiences and accounts are interpreted and examined, based primarily on Sen’s capability approach, while their actual capabilities and functionings are evaluated, based on the selected aspects of their situations.   This study claims that even though the female online storeowners believe they have a higher autonomy in managing their time and household duties, and an ability to act according to their will to achieve what they desire, the female online storeowners still do not regard themselves as entrepreneurs. The enhancements in the capabilities of the female online storeowners and their achieved functionings do not necessarily go beyond the online environment. This study aims to provide a solid departure for any further investigations into women’s empowerment through e-commerce on a societal level.

The Swedish entrepreneurial environment is a heavily male-dominated field characterized by unequal conditions, a significant gender gap, and discriminatory practices. Research is filled with contradictory arguments discussing how gender is not an issue in the world of entrepreneurship, when in fact this conceals gender equality issues that are still prevalent today. This study aimed to describe and explain, from an incubator perspective, the challenges and opportunities that arise from working with gender equality in entrepreneurship. The purpose was also to study the effects these efforts have on the ventures partaking in the incubator’s program, as well as their perceptions of it. Based on a literature review of gender equality in entrepreneurship, a qualitative approach deemed necessary to explain the complexity of this issue. This research performed a case study on one Swedish incubator consisting of two samples. Data was collected through in-depth interviews held with the incubator team and online questionnaires were distributed to some ventures currently partaking in the incubator program, as well as to some alumni. The results indicated that there were more challenges than opportunities involved in working with gender equality in entrepreneurship. The most frequently addressed challenges for female entrepreneurs related to contexts of receiving financial aid from investors, the unequal opportunities given by supporting actors such as advisors, banks, lawyers etc., and the effect of gender stereotypes. In the analysis it was identified that women’s unequal opportunities consisted of, among others, women receiving different questions than men, having to defend their ideas to a larger extent, and consistently being viewed in a traditional manner concerning family-care constraints. However, many of the identified challenges for female entrepreneurs could be used in favor of the incubator. Meaning that the incubator could turn the challenges into opportunities for helping female entrepreneurs in their incubator program. For instance, the incubator can help reduce the barriers for entrepreneurs who want to pursue industries typically dominated by the opposite gender, this in turn would create a larger diversity across industries. The incubator had a positive influence on the ventures and their perceptions indicate that equal conditions are provided between the genders. The relationship was difficult to fully describe and explain as the incubator’s gender equality work was novel. Future research could investigate more in-depth the underlying reasons why gender inequality issues still pertain, but also more about what actions could be done to address the issues.

This thesis aims to emancipate female entrepreneurs from the metanarrative of economic growth which has created a false dichotomy of successful male entrepreneur versus an unsuccessful female entrepreneur. This aim is pursued through a multidisciplinary and critical inquiry that destabilises this metanarrative conceptually and empirically. A critical interrogation of economic studies reveals the embeddedness of the metanarrative in neo-classical economic growth theory. Far from being a true reflection of the entrepreneurial experience, the theory has silenced the innovator entrepreneur in economic theory and replaced him/her with an economic rational manager. Concurrently, a re-analysis of Schumpeter’s theorising suggests that his theories do not subordinate female entrepreneurs as claimed by a number of critical theorists. In contrast, his theorising is emancipatory and offers an alternative theoretical framework to the oppressive neo-classical economic growth theory. Oral history methods are used to capture the voices of female entrepreneurs which have largely been excluded from the literature. The oral history narratives challenge the oppressive homogeneity imposed by the metanarrative of economic growth and illustrate the negative influence of the theoretical foundation of neo-classical theory upon the entrepreneurial experience. The study offers theoretical, methodological and empirical contributions to female entrepreneurship studies by presenting a fresh interpretation of Schumpeter’s theorising; including the voices of the female entrepreneurs; and applying research approaches that break away from positivism which dominates entrepreneurial studies. The study has implications for policy makers and practitioners as it generates knowledge that takes account of the current social and economic changes. / Bradford University School of Management

Yes / This article explores gender and entrepreneurial leadership, notably the meanings female entrepreneurs ascribe to notions of entrepreneurial leadership. Drawing from interviews with female business owners, the article questions the dominant hegemonic masculine entrepreneurial leadership model as well as that reportedly associated with women. Research findings illuminate the fluidity and variability of the entrepreneurial leadership construct. Our feminist poststructural lens and critical leadership stance adds new insight into the multiple subjectivities of entrepreneurs and surfaces contradiction and tension that shape the very sense of their entrepreneurial selves. By questioning accepted knowledge, this research offers new perspectives on the multiple realities of entrepreneurial leadership, which should be heeded by policy makers, academics and practitioners alike.

That women experience different and even more challenges within the corporate environment than men do is no news. For female entrepreneurs, the challenges they experience entering the entrepreneurial setting have been and are still being researched. Studies show that specifically female entrepreneurs face challenges such as balancing work and family, lack of networks, and creating credibility and legitimacy. However, how these challenges differ for women who innovate within companies in an intrapreneurial setting is a subject that needs more research. To explore and further understand these challenges a qualitative study has been executed with semi-structured interviews of female intrapreneurs. The findings of this study reveal that there seems to be a similarity between the challenges that female entrepreneurs and female intrapreneurs experience. These challenges were balancing work and family/social life, the glass ceiling phenomenon, creating internal credibility and legitimacy, and networking. However, it also shows that there are some perceived differences and challenges, namely, external credibility and legitimacy, raising funding, and policies applied differently to female intrapreneurs. Lastly, two unique challenges were found for females in intrapreneurship, namely, the company culture and the lack of role models. Moreover, a pattern that repeatedly came up was empowerment among women, which might not necessarily be viewed as a challenge. These findings give a reasonable indication of the challenges for women in intrapreneurship and help give direction for future research within this field.

This thesis aims to emancipate female entrepreneurs from the metanarrative of economic growth which has created a false dichotomy of successful male entrepreneur versus an unsuccessful female entrepreneur. This aim is pursued through a multidisciplinary and critical inquiry that destabilises this metanarrative conceptually and empirically. A critical interrogation of economic studies reveals the embeddedness of the metanarrative in neo-classical economic growth theory. Far from being a true reflection of the entrepreneurial experience, the theory has silenced the innovator entrepreneur in economic theory and replaced him/her with an economic rational manager. Concurrently, a re-analysis of Schumpeter’s theorising suggests that his theories do not subordinate female entrepreneurs as claimed by a number of critical theorists. In contrast, his theorising is emancipatory and offers an alternative theoretical framework to the oppressive neo-classical economic growth theory. Oral history methods are used to capture the voices of female entrepreneurs which have largely been excluded from the literature. The oral history narratives challenge the oppressive homogeneity imposed by the metanarrative of economic growth and illustrate the negative influence of the theoretical foundation of neo-classical theory upon the entrepreneurial experience. The study offers theoretical, methodological and empirical contributions to female entrepreneurship studies by presenting a fresh interpretation of Schumpeter’s theorising; including the voices of the female entrepreneurs; and applying research approaches that break away from positivism which dominates entrepreneurial studies. The study has implications for policy makers and practitioners as it generates knowledge that takes account of the current social and economic changes.

Women’s entrepreneurship is a much touted topic of research with researchers competing to contribute to the growing body of knowledge. Although literature is replete with articles and opinions on the various aspects concerning women’s entrepreneurship, still more needs to be done. Much of the research produced until now has focused on specific contexts like western countries and results obtained are either not conclusive or generalizable and in many cases incomplete. Research on women’s entrepreneurship conducted in the contexts of developing nations appears to be grossly inadequate, bordering almost on a neglected category. Specifically, research on women’s entrepreneurship conducted in the context of Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) Countries is almost nil except for a few sporadic articles here and there. How women entrepreneurs have fared in the GCC countries is not clear and there is a need to know what their current status is, how they have performed and what challenges contribute to their lack of progress. There is a huge gap in the literature in this area and this research has made some modest contributions to remove this gap partially. The literature review shows that a number of challenges affect women entrepreneurs’ success. Although the research output used in this research was derived from studies conducted largely in a western context, some of the factors grounded in theories like institutional theory were found to be applicable to the context of women entrepreneurs in the GCC. Five of these challenges, namely lack of adequate training and education; legal constraints; cultural constraints and a lack of social support; lack of access to financial resources; and work–family interface have been investigated in this research using a conceptual model and survey questionnaire. Women entrepreneurs in three GCC countries, namely Kingdom of Bahrain, Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates, were chosen for studying the phenomenon of women’s entrepreneurial involvement in business activities. A random sampling method was used. Hypotheses were developed and verified and the five challenges were found through rigorous statistical tests to significantly affect the involvement of women entrepreneurs in business activity in GCC countries. The challenges selected were part of a larger set of challenges, not all of which could be investigated due to paucity of time, resources and the large territory comprising three nations in the GCC region. In addition, an exploratory study using interviews was conducted to identify specific challenges that affect women entrepreneurs in the GCC countries. Three additional challenges, namely intellectual property; patronage and connections; and lengthy regulatory procedures were revealed through this. Mixed method research was used which led to triangulation of the results obtained from analysing data gathered through questionnaire survey and interview. The challenges that emerged from the analysis of the questionnaire survey and interviews resulted in the development of a new and comprehensive model that combined the challenges tested through the empirical model and those derived from interviews. The findings from the analysis indicated that much needs to be done to enable women entrepreneurs involved in business activities in the GCC region to succeed. Many challenges need to be tackled. The findings clearly point out that the challenges are responsible for the low percentage (around 2%) of business activities attributable to women-owned enterprises in the GCC countries. This research contributes to the growing body of knowledge in the area of women’s entrepreneurship in the specific context of the GCC region. The research outcomes clearly indicate that specific challenges can be tackled to improve the involvement of business activities of women entrepreneurs in the GCC region. Since the topic of involvement of women entrepreneurs in business activities in the context of GCC countries is not well investigated, the research outcomes of this research add to the current knowledge from a contextual point of view. In addition, the research has expanded the application of institutional theory to understand about the various challenges that affect involvement of women entrepreneurs in business activities in the context of GCC and contributed theoretically in terms of developing a new framework that could be used to examine how the challenges could be tackled. Methodologically, the research has shown how a mixed method research can be used to combine the outcome of survey research with interviews. Practical implications of the research outcomes show that the framework developed in this research could be adopted in practice by women entrepreneurs themselves, as well as various institutions and organizations that are concerned with women entrepreneurs, for improving the involvement of women entrepreneurs in business activities in the context of the GCC. Although the limitations of this research have been highlighted, how to overcome those limitations through future research has been explained. Thus, overall, this research effort is expected to stimulate further discussion and debate with regard to the involvement of women in business activities in the GCC and act as some kind of a basis for initiating steps to improve the position of women entrepreneurs involved in business activities in the GCC and perhaps in other regions surrounding the GCC countries.

The purpose of this paper is to examine the situation of female entrepreneurs in Sweden by exploring the Swedish governments adopted, targeted entrepreneurship policy on women entrepreneurs and evaluate the program "Support Women Entrepreneurs 2007-2009" implemented by the Swedish Agency for Economic and Regional Growth. In the program evaluation process qualitative data analyses methods are used. The aim of the evaluation is to measure how planned program/component parts were implemented in practice and whether set goals were accomplished. Overall results from the program evaluation should be considered as positive. The original program plan consisted of six parts, 20 goals, and 34 component parts. Out of the 34 component parts, 18 were acknowledged to have been accomplished, information was not available for 14 component parts and 2 component parts were found not to be accomplished. Due to the program’s complexity in execution, involving different executive layers on national, regional and municipal levels, evaluation process was quite demanding and still it could not represent the highest level of preciseness in evaluating component parts. The most actively executed and successfully implemented part of the program could be considered part four: Attitudes and role-models.

Female entrepreneurship plays a significant role in economic growth and innovation within the entrepreneurial ecosystem. However, Female entrepreneurs face challenges that are different from male entrepreneurs. Regarding market access, capacity-building training, and investment, many female entrepreneurs within the Global South face additional challenges of patriarchy, gender stereotyping, and lack of access to opportunities or support from society, friends, and family. In this thesis, a qualitative approach was undertaken to assess the influence of family moral support for female entrepreneurs in creating their businesses by identifying and analyzing their personal experiences and challenges during their business development and growth phase in Indonesia and Pakistan. As a result, female entrepreneurs in these countries need access to business opportunities with family moral support, which helps them break the stigmas and get out of an unsupported environment. With family moral support, female entrepreneurs have proven to excel in developing their entrepreneurial set of skills, especially in the creation phase and maintaining the growth of their Small-Medium Enterprises. However, every privilege of female entrepreneurs still needs to consider that their personal and family backgrounds are different and intersect with other aspects that could lead to success or barriers to creating Small-Medium Enterprises.