Filiality (xiao) has been a significant concept in Chinese culture. Its significance is shown by the fact that its idea was elevated to a system of philosophy by Confucians in the Zhanguo period (475-221 B.C.E.). The purpose of this study is to clarify why filiality was important and what the philosophy of filiality essentially meant. Filiality was not merely a familial ethic. In the Western Zhou period (the 11th c. to 770 B.C.E.), it meant sacrifices to ancestors. Filiality toward fatherhood was essentially obedience to headship of lineage groups, and it was expressed in ancestor worship. When lineage gradually collapsed in the Chunqiu period (770-475 B.C.E.), its significance must have been restricted. In fact, however, filiality was given a new meaning by Zhanguo Confucians. First, Confucius emphasized the mental aspect of filiality, and then Mencius thought of filiality as the basis from which general ethics were generated. The various ideas of filiality were collected in a book: the Book of Filiality. This book, presenting the dichotomy between love and reverence, argued that a father-son relationship had an element shared by a monarch-retainer relationship and that filiality should be shifted into loyalty. The essential achievement of this philosophy was the recognition of the dualistic nature of human beings; any human relationship was a social relation between two social roles as well as an emotional connection between two characters. The former was the basis for culture and society. It was the aspect of culture inherent in human nature that should be developed to bring about social justice. This dualism was derived from the ambiguity of fatherhood in ancestor worship. As ancestor symbolized the social role of lineage headship, the philosophy of filiality symbolically connected fatherhood to the social role of authority in general. Filiality was identified with devotion to the absolute basis for humans and society that was symbolized by fatherhood. This thesis, analyzing ancient Chinese philosophy of filiality, presents a hypothesis concerning the essential structure of ancestor worship, which can be summarized as the symbolism representing higher levels of authority on the basis of parental authority.

Chinese society has greatly emphasized filial piety and other related societal norms. This thesis explores how Mainland Chinese international students, especially those who are from one-child households, maintain their familial responsibilities while studying in Canada away from home. The research is framed by the family migration strategy literature and empirically adopts a qualitative approach. Semi-structured face-to-face interviews with Mainland Chinese international students are undertaken. The findings show that as with many other types of migration, student migration, in this case, is a familial decision. To a certain extent, obtaining a foreign degree is the foundation for fulfilling familial responsibilities in the future. In addition, a new concept, delay remittances, is introduced as a way of conceptualizing the concrete meaning of familial responsibility for Mainland Chinese international students. The findings also show that the most significant tension for Mainland Chinese international is related to the uncertainty of how and where they will be able to fulfill their familial obligations to their parents.

Filiality (xiao) has been a significant concept in Chinese culture. Its significance is shown by the fact that its idea was elevated to a system of philosophy by Confucians in the Zhanguo period (475-221 B.C.E.). The purpose of this study is to clarify why filiality was important and what the philosophy of filiality essentially meant. Filiality was not merely a familial ethic. In the Western Zhou period (the 11th c. to 770 B.C.E.), it meant sacrifices to ancestors. Filiality toward fatherhood was essentially obedience to headship of lineage groups, and it was expressed in ancestor worship. When lineage gradually collapsed in the Chunqiu period (770-475 B.C.E.), its significance must have been restricted. In fact, however, filiality was given a new meaning by Zhanguo Confucians. First, Confucius emphasized the mental aspect of filiality, and then Mencius thought of filiality as the basis from which general ethics were generated. The various ideas of filiality were collected in a book: the Book of Filiality. This book, presenting the dichotomy between love and reverence, argued that a father-son relationship had an element shared by a monarch-retainer relationship and that filiality should be shifted into loyalty. The essential achievement of this philosophy was the recognition of the dualistic nature of human beings; any human relationship was a social relation between two social roles as well as an emotional connection between two characters. The former was the basis for culture and society. It was the aspect of culture inherent in human nature that should be developed to bring about social justice. This dualism was derived from the ambiguity of fatherhood in ancestor worship. As ancestor symbolized the social role of lineage headship, the philosophy of filiality symbolically connected fatherhood to the social role of authority in general. Filiality was identified with devotion to the absolute basis for humans and society that was symbolized by fatherhood. This thesis, analyzing ancient Chinese philosophy of filiality, presents a hypothesis concerning the essential structure of ancestor worship, which can be summarized as the symbolism representing higher levels of authority on the basis of parental authority. / Arts, Faculty of / Asian Studies, Department of / Graduate

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Against the backdrop of successful family planning in China, the aging of the society’s population is increasing. With the increasing number of older adults, the support of the elderly has become a significant issue for society. Filial piety and respect for the elderly are the fundamentals of Chinese society and its long history. One aspect of filial piety focused on the responsibilities of the family in eldercare. It advocates that the elderly need not only material help but also spiritual comfort and emotional support. This culture of filial piety in a traditional Chinese society illustrates a path for responding to problems of the aging population. However, with the advent of an industrialized society, China’s family structure has undergone fundamental changes. There is an increasing trend of families choosing to send the elders to long-term institutional care rather than home or community care. This has led to conflict between traditional filial piety principles and the new model of aging healthcare. As a result, it is important to understand whether the new institutional care in China will meet the material and spiritual needs of the elderly. This paper aims to examine how Chinese values connect with eldercare treatments nowadays with the interplay of filial piety Confucian familism. More specifically, this paper discusses how Confucian values play in the relationship among eldercare locations, accessibility to care, and how filial piety has been expressed in the senior home before and during the COVID-19 pandemic in China. Also, since the available data on service and quality in nursing homes in China is limited, it is important to understand what administrators and caregivers are experiencing as a first step. This paper examines the following issues during the COVID-19 outbreak. 1. To what extent does Filial-piety Confucian familism play a role in young and elder generation’s attitudes regarding elder health care? 2. What challenges do the nursing homes face before and during the pandemic? 3. How was filial-piety expressed in the nursing home before and during the pandemic? Methodology and Methods This project conducted a total of 15 in-depth interviews with selected interviewees, including both selected administrators and caregivers in five nursing homes in Shanghai, China. As the researcher was born and raised in Shanghai, the insights for this research came partially from the real-life experience and a personal understanding of Chinese culture. The researcher conducted this qualitative study in Shanghai during the time when there were restrictions on travel and interaction due to COVID-19. Regarding the location specialty, the researcher was able to conduct interviews in Shanghainese and observe the cultural rituals inherent in the region. The interviews were conducted to observe examples of experiences that administrators and caregivers observed or participated in. As such, the results are based on examples more so that opinions or attitudes. All interviews were recruited through email exchanges and discussions were over WeChat (a Chinese communication app) and phone calls due to the pandemic restrictions. Key Findings This study found that numerous young people in China chose to place their parents in nursing homes due to busy work schedules, house demolitions, and the need for long-term medical care for their parents. However, senior care institutions are still in the stage of exploration and standardization. Inevitably, there are some problems, including a shortage of professional medical staff and a limited level of medical services that can be provided. It was found that this new and flourishing model of elderly care is also facing a series of problems that are prevalent around the world, such as high bed vacancy rate, endless psychological problems of the elderlies, and increased operating costs of nursing homes. This information has led us to question whether the elders are living well and to try to understand views of nursing homes and filial piety. We found that most elders have gradually changed their traditional concept of filial piety to a more modern one. The administrators and caregivers we interviewed said that “filial piety” is a respect from the heart, a mutual emotional exchange and understanding. It possesses equality and democracy between two generations. Their comments suggest that more elderly people living in nursing homes have low attachment to traditional notions of filial piety. In contrast, more children have a solid attachment to traditional filial piety because they struggled mentally before sending their parents to a nursing home. In addition, the study found that filial piety was expressed differently before and during COVID-19. Prior to the pandemic, the administrators and caregivers suggested that individuals were more inclined to fulfill practical obligations and compassionate reverence needs. Whereas, during the pandemic, filial piety was expressed less practically and more emotionally due to the closure of institutions. Future Research Further studies should expand the sample size by including more nursing homes in various districts of Shanghai. It would be helpful if researchers can interview the caregivers and administrators in person and visit some of the care homes to gather other information on the unique needs of clients and families. Further studies could seek to discover how filial piety plays a role in the nursing home after the pandemic has passed. The challenges of the aging models can be further analyzed and recognized through exploring public policies and the needs of China’s overall society. For example, China's future pension system might need to respond to how filial piety evolves. A comprehensive pension security system based on current filial views could be established where children might play different roles in the older adults' material life, care, and spiritual comfort. This research offers suggestions to consider in future research relating to finding a role for elderly care homes in society in reducing some of the negative perceptions of these homes, developing a model that meets the needs of elderly and children, and training and developing staff. Firstly, research might seek to understand how to address some of the negative perceptions of the nursing homes and, possibly, change the view that nursing homes do not mean an abandonment of the elderly. Rather, research might seek to illustrate ways that nursing homes might implement a modern version of filial piety which provides a way that elderly can live in a care home as well as participating with their children in their family homes. Secondly, the study might get input into a template or model for designing nursing homes to recognize the evolving changes and pressures on traditional views of filial piety. As needs of children and elderly in a society have changed, so have their expectation of filial piety and, given these changes, how do we develop elderly institutions to respond to the economic needs of children and society at large? Thirdly, the research might investigate the response to the concerns raised from administrators about the shortage of trained staff. This might involve identifying needs of qualified care professional and encouraging their training and developing in colleges, vocational and technical colleges, secondary vocational schools, and county vocational education centers. / Graduate

近年來，全球經濟動盪的衝擊與中國社會的急速變遷，為大學生職業生涯發展帶來了種種挑戰。其中，“生涯決策困難與“低水平職業承諾為兩大凸顯的就業問題，使得“生涯應變力素質的培養成為迫切課題；但相關本土化研究卻極為匱乏。本研究基於生涯發展理論（Super, 1957, 1969, 1980, 1984, 1990），旨在探索“父母期望與“孝道觀念，作為華人核心的家庭文化價值，如何影響大學生在應變力、決策困難及職業承諾方面的發展。來自上海18所高校的877名大學生（平均年齡21歲，男生占38.9%，女生占61.1%）填寫了《符合父母期望量表, LPEI》《與生涯有關的孝道觀念量表, C-FPS》《生涯應變力量表, CAAI》《情緒-人格生涯決策困難量表, EPCD》與《職業選擇承諾量表, CCCS》。研究結果顯示，父母期望與孝道觀念通過生涯應變能力影響決策困難及承諾形成的結構模型得到了很好的實證支持。另外，父母期望與孝道對職業生涯均有雙向作用，一方面會促進生涯應變力的發展，而另一方面也可能增加生涯決策過程中的困難體驗、導致低水平的職業承諾與趨於封閉的職業選擇。同時，孝道觀念在父母期望與職業發展之間表現出顯著的中介效應。最後，對本研究在華人生涯發展方面的理論及實踐意義進行了闡述，并對未來研究方向作出了展望（499字）。 / In recent years, the vagaries of global economy and rapid social transformation bring great challenges to university students. Graduates’ difficulty in employment has becoming one of the hottest issues in China. The difficulty of career decision-making and low level of career commitment emerging as two urgent employment problems, call for attention on the development of career adaptability. However, little research has identified key culture-related factors influencing such problems. Based on career developmental theory (Super, 1957, 1969, 1980, 1984, 1990), this study aimed to investigate how parental expectation and filial piety, the core familial values of Asian culture, have impact on university students’ career adaptability, career decision-making difficulties and career choice commitment. Participants included 877 undergraduates from 18 universities and colleges in Shanghai (age{U+2090}{U+0076}{U+0065}{U+0072}{U+0061}{U+0067}{U+0065} = 21, N{U+006d}{U+0061}{U+006c}{U+0065} = 341, N{U+0066}{U+0065}{U+006d}{U+0061}{U+0069}{U+0065} = 536). They completed Living-up to Parental Expectation Inventory, Career-related Filial Piety Scale, Career Adapt-Ability Inventory, Emotional and Personality-related Career decision-making Difficulties, and Commitment to Career Choice Scale. The data empirically supported hypothesized model that perceived parental expectation and filial piety influence career decision-making difficulty and career commitment through career adaptability very well. The results also revealed double-effect of perceived parental expectation and filial piety, as well as the significant mediating effect of the latter on career development. The theoretical and practical implication of Chinese career guidance was discussed. / Detailed summary in vernacular field only. / 李希希. / "2013年05月". / "2013 nian 5 yue". / Thesis (Ph.D.)--Chinese University of Hong Kong, 2013. / Includes bibliographical references (leaves 175-199). / Electronic reproduction. Hong Kong : Chinese University of Hong Kong, [2012] System requirements: Adobe Acrobat Reader. Available via World Wide Web. / Abstract in Chinese and English. / Li Xixi. / Chapter 第一章 --- 研究概述 --- p.1 / Chapter 1.1 --- 研究背景 --- p.1 / Chapter 1.1.1 --- 當前中國大學生職業生涯發展的本土境遇與挑戰 --- p.1 / Chapter 1.1.2 --- 求學-工作轉折期的特殊發展任務 --- p.4 / Chapter 1.1.3 --- 華人家庭情境因素對職業生涯發展的影響 --- p.5 / Chapter 1.2 --- 研究目的與研究問題 --- p.7 / Chapter 1.3 --- 研究的重要性 --- p.7 / Chapter 1.3.1 --- 理論方面 --- p.7 / Chapter 1.3.2 --- 實踐方面 --- p.9 / Chapter 第二章 --- 文獻回顧 --- p.10 / Chapter 2.1 --- 關于大學生職業生涯發展的文獻回顧 --- p.10 / Chapter 2.1.1 --- 關于生涯應變力的文獻回顧 --- p.10 / Chapter 2.1.1.1 --- 生涯應變力的概念內涵及其理論背景 --- p.10 / Chapter 2.1.1.2 --- 關于生涯應變力的實證研究 --- p.23 / Chapter 2.1.1.3 --- 關于生涯應變力文獻回顧的小結 --- p.27 / Chapter 2.1.2 --- 關于生涯决策困難的文獻綜述 --- p.28 / Chapter 2.1.2.1 --- 生涯决策困難的概念化 --- p.29 / Chapter 2.1.2.2 --- 關于生涯决策困難的相關實證研究 --- p.32 / Chapter 2.1.2.3 --- 關于生涯决策困難文獻回顧的小結 --- p.32 / Chapter 2.1.3 --- 關於職業承諾的文獻綜述 --- p.33 / Chapter 2.1.3.1 --- 職業承諾的概念界定與二維度模型 --- p.34 / Chapter 2.1.3.2 --- 關于職業承諾的實證研究 --- p.37 / Chapter 2.1.3.3 --- 關于職業承諾文獻綜述的小結 --- p.40 / Chapter 2.2 --- 關于家庭情境因素影響大學生職業生涯發展的文獻綜述 --- p.42 / Chapter 2.2.1 --- 依戀關係對職業生涯發展的影響 --- p.42 / Chapter 2.2.1.1 --- 依戀關係對生涯選擇的影響 --- p.43 / Chapter 2.2.1.2 --- 依戀關係對生涯探索的影響 --- p.44 / Chapter 2.2.1.3 --- 依戀關係對生涯追求與生涯决策的影響 --- p.45 / Chapter 2.2.1.4 --- 關于依戀關係的小結 --- p.47 / Chapter 2.2.2 --- 父母支持對職業生涯發展的影響 --- p.48 / Chapter 2.2.2.1 --- 父母支持對職業效能感的影響 --- p.48 / Chapter 2.2.2.2 --- 父母支持對生涯抱負的影響 --- p.49 / Chapter 2.2.2.3 --- 父母支持對生涯探索與决策困難的影響 --- p.49 / Chapter 2.2.2.4 --- 關于父母支持的小結 --- p.50 / Chapter 2.2.3 --- 父母期望對職業生涯發展的影響 --- p.52 / Chapter 2.2.3.1 --- 父母期望對教育抱負與生涯抱負的影響 --- p.52 / Chapter 2.2.3.2 --- 父母期望對生涯選擇與生涯决策的影響 --- p.55 / Chapter 2.2.3.3 --- 父母期望對生涯成就的影響 --- p.59 / Chapter 2.2.3.4 --- 關于父母期望的小結 --- p.61 / Chapter 2.2.4 --- 孝道觀念對職業生涯發展的影響 --- p.62 / Chapter 2.2.4.1 --- 孝道觀念的概念化發展 --- p.62 / Chapter 2.2.4.2 --- 關于孝道觀念的實證研究 --- p.65 / Chapter 2.2.4.3 --- 關于孝道觀念文獻回顧的小結 --- p.68 / Chapter 2.2.5 --- 集體主義衝突對職業生涯發展的影響 --- p.69 / Chapter 2.2.5.1 --- 集體主義衝突的概念化與中西文化價值的存 --- p.69 / Chapter 2.2.5.2 --- 家庭情境中的集體主義衝突:孝道對父母期望的矛盾回應 --- p.70 / Chapter 2.2.5.3 --- 關于集體主義衝突的小結 --- p.72 / Chapter 第三章 --- 研究問題與研究假設 --- p.74 / Chapter 第四章 --- 測量工具的信效度檢驗 --- p.79 / Chapter 4.1 --- 信效度檢驗樣本 --- p.79 / Chapter 4.2 --- 研究程序與數據分析 --- p.80 / Chapter 4.3 --- 信效度檢驗方法及標準界定 --- p.80 / Chapter 4.3.1 --- 信度分析 --- p.80 / Chapter 4.3.2 --- 因素效度分析及等同性檢驗 --- p.81 / Chapter 4.4 --- 測量工具的信效度檢驗及修訂 --- p.82 / Chapter 4.4.1 --- 對生涯應變力量表的信效度檢驗及修訂 --- p.82 / Chapter 4.4.1.1 --- 量表簡介 --- p.82 / Chapter 4.4.1.2 --- 信度檢驗 --- p.83 / Chapter 4.4.1.3 --- 效度檢驗 --- p.83 / Chapter 4.4.2 --- 對生涯决策困難量表的信效度檢驗及修訂 --- p.85 / Chapter 4.4.2.1 --- 量表簡介 --- p.85 / Chapter 4.4.2.2 --- 信度檢驗 --- p.89 / Chapter 4.4.2.3 --- 效度檢驗 --- p.91 / Chapter 4.4.3 --- 對職業選擇承諾量表的信效度檢驗及修訂 --- p.97 / Chapter 4.4.3.1 --- 量表簡介 --- p.97 / Chapter 4.4.3.2 --- 信度檢驗 --- p.98 / Chapter 4.4.3.3 --- 效度檢驗 --- p.100 / Chapter 4.4.4 --- 對符合父母期望量表的信效度檢驗及修訂 --- p.102 / Chapter 4.4.4.1 --- 量表簡介 --- p.102 / Chapter 4.4.4.2 --- 信度檢驗 --- p.102 / Chapter 4.4.4.3 --- 效度檢驗 --- p.105 / Chapter 4.4.5 --- 對孝道觀念量表的信效度檢驗及修訂 --- p.109 / Chapter 4.4.5.1 --- 量表簡介 --- p.109 / Chapter 4.4.5.2 --- 信度檢驗 --- p.109 / Chapter 4.4.5.3 --- 效度檢驗 --- p.109 / Chapter 4.5 --- 對測量工具信效度檢驗的小結 --- p.114 / Chapter 第五章 --- 研究結果 --- p.115 / Chapter 5.1 --- 研究樣本 --- p.115 / Chapter 5.2 --- 交互樣本信效度檢驗結果 --- p.115 / Chapter 5.3 --- 數據分析方法 --- p.116 / Chapter 5.4 --- 對職業生涯變量與家庭情境變量的描述性分析 --- p.118 / Chapter 5.4.1 --- 對生涯應變力的描述性分析 --- p.118 / Chapter 5.4.2 --- 對生涯决策困難的描述性分析 --- p.118 / Chapter 5.4.3 --- 對職業承諾傾向與封閉傾向的描述性分析 --- p.119 / Chapter 5.4.4 --- 對感知到的父母期望的描述性分析 --- p.119 / Chapter 5.4.5 --- 對孝道觀念的描述性分析 --- p.123 / Chapter 5.5 --- 對職業生涯變量與家庭情境變量的相關分析 --- p.123 / Chapter 5.5.1 --- 職業生涯變量之間的相關分析 --- p.123 / Chapter 5.5.2 --- 父母期望與職業生涯變量的相關分析 --- p.124 / Chapter 5.5.3 --- 孝道觀念與職業生涯變量的相關分析 --- p.126 / Chapter 5.6 --- 對父母期望、孝道觀念與職業生涯變量的結構模型檢驗 --- p.127 / Chapter 5.6.1 --- 父母期望、孝道觀念與應變力、决策困難與承諾傾向的結構模型 --- p.127 / Chapter 5.6.2 --- 父母期望、孝道觀念與應變力、决策困難與封閉傾向的結構模型 --- p.128 / Chapter 5.7 --- 孝道觀念在父母期望與職業生涯變量之間的中介/調節效應檢驗 --- p.129 / Chapter 5.7.1 --- 孝道觀念在父母期望與生涯應變力之間的中介/調節效應檢驗 --- p.133 / Chapter 5.7.2 --- 孝道觀念在父母期望與生涯决策困難之間的中介/調節效應檢驗 --- p.133 / Chapter 5.7.3 --- 孝道觀念在父母期望與職業選擇承諾之間的中介/調節效應檢驗 --- p.135 / Chapter 5.8 --- 父母期望與孝道觀念對職業生涯變量的預測作用 --- p.139 / Chapter 5.8.1 --- 父母期望對職業生涯變量的預測作用 --- p.139 / Chapter 5.8.2 --- 孝道觀念對職業生涯變量的預測作用 --- p.143 / Chapter 5.9 --- 生涯應變力對决策困難與職業選擇承諾的預測作用 --- p.144 / Chapter 5.9.1 --- 生涯應變力對决策困難的預測作用 --- p.144 / Chapter 5.9.2 --- 生涯應變力對職業選擇承諾的預測作用 --- p.147 / Chapter 5.10 --- 關于研究結果的小結 --- p.150 / Chapter 第六章 --- 研究討論 --- p.151 / Chapter 6.1 --- 性別及年級的影響 --- p.151 / Chapter 6.2 --- 生涯應變力對生涯决策困難與低職業承諾的積極保護效應 --- p.154 / Chapter 6.2.1 --- 生涯應變力對生涯决策困難的緩解作用 --- p.154 / Chapter 6.2.2 --- 生涯應變力對低職業承諾的保護作用 --- p.156 / Chapter 6.3 --- 父母期望與孝道觀念是職業生涯發展的“雙刃劍 --- p.158 / Chapter 6.3.1 --- 父母期望對職業生涯發展的雙向影響 --- p.158 / Chapter 6.3.1.1 --- 父母期望對職業生涯發展的積極影響 --- p.158 / Chapter 6.3.1.2 --- 父母期望對職業生涯發展的消極影響 --- p.159 / Chapter 6.3.2 --- 孝道觀念對職業生涯發展的促進或阻礙作用 --- p.160 / Chapter 6.3.2.1 --- 孝道觀念對職業生涯發展的促進作用 --- p.160 / Chapter 6.3.2.2 --- 孝道觀念對職業生涯發展的阻礙作用 --- p.162 / Chapter 6.4 --- 孝道觀念具有關鍵性的中介效應 --- p.163 / Chapter 6.4.1 --- 孝道觀念在父母期望與生涯應變力之間的中介效應 --- p.164 / Chapter 6.4.2 --- 孝道觀念在父母期望與生涯决策困難之間的中介效應 --- p.164 / Chapter 6.4.3 --- 孝道觀念在父母期望與職業選擇承諾之間的中介效應 --- p.165 / Chapter 6.5 --- 探討父母期望、孝道觀念與職業生涯變量的整合模型 --- p.166 / Chapter 6.5.1 --- 父母期望、孝道與應變力、决策困難、職業承諾的整合模型 --- p.166 / Chapter 6.5.2 --- 父母期望、孝道與應變力、决策困難、職業封閉的整合模型 --- p.167 / Chapter 第七章 --- 研究總結與未來展望 --- p.168 / Chapter 7.1 --- 研究總結 --- p.168 / Chapter 7.2 --- 研究意義 --- p.168 / Chapter 7.3 --- 未來研究展望 --- p.171 / Chapter 7.4 --- 研究局限 --- p.173 / 參考文獻 --- p.174 / 附錄 --- p.199

This study (1) developed and tested the Socially Supportive Activity Inventory (SSAI) to assess the quantity and quality of socially supportive activities that institutionalized elders receive, and (2) tested the predicted relationships among the variables proposed in the hypothesized causal model, socially supportive activities, self-transcendence, and depression in institutionalized elders. For pilot testing psychometric properties of the SSAI, the content validity was 0.96. Test-retest reliability from a sample of 10 participants yielded stability coefficients of 0.76-1.00, indicating the SSAI is a highly relevant and reliable culturally-based instrument. In the main study, a total of 196 participants were recruited from eight elder care institutions. The results showed an elder's expectation of filial responsibility did not have a moderating effect on the willingness to be/remain institutionalized and on perceived stress. An elder's acceptance of institutionalization was significantly related to perceived stress and indirectly affected depression. The mediator effect of self-transcendence on the relationship between perceived stress and depression was supported. The participation of elderly residents in socially supportive activities demonstrated a moderating effect on the strength of a negative relationship between perceived stress and self-transcendence. In the modified model, an elder's willingness to remain institutionalized, perceived stress, and self-transcendence were significant predictors of depression, accounting for 54.7% of variance. Self-transcendence was the best predictor of depression. These findings contribute to an awareness of importance of culture factors as potential stressors. These findings also help to explain how the psychosocial mechanism of participation in socially supportive activities and the perception of self-transcendence act on depressed elders.

This project explores Japan’s complex literary and cultural negotiation with China from the twelfth through the sixteenth centuries, focusing on the role of intermediary texts (dictionaries, encyclopedias, and commentaries) and the different modes of receiving and constructing Chinese culture depending on historical periods and scholarly lineages. As the larger process by which Chinese history and literature became part of the Japanese literary culture has long been studied on the assumption that there is direct textual continuity between Japanese texts (in literary Sinitic) and Chinese continental texts, the tracking down of citations, allusion, and references to Chinese source texts has commanded great scholarly attention. Yet this assumption obscures other, equally important histories – such as a popular understanding of Chinese culture, or a conceptual perception of Chinese culture, that was NOT based on direct textual continuity – that lies at the heart of this project. The introduction outlines three modes of receiving and constructing Chinese literary culture in pre-modern japan. One was the text-based, canonical view of Chinese history and literature, which relied almost exclusively on texts and genres that were canonized in the Nara and Heian periods state university (daigakuryō) – Confucian classics, Chinese official dynastic histories, and Chinese poetry. In contrast with it was a more popular, name-based understanding of Chinese culture that emerged from various intermediary genres (such as anecdotal literature, dictionaries, encyclopedias, and commentaries) both in China and in Japan. This mode of reception and construction was not based on texts so much as on what I call “cultural signs” (particularly Chinese names, well-known anecdotes, and visual cues) and required no knowledge of the original literary Sinitic. Third was a conceptual, term-based perception, manifested in such concepts as “loyalty” and “filial piety.” Written in the same kanji characters, these terms served as common threads linking Chinese and Japanese literary writings on the one hand, but also took on new meanings and associations in the Japanese cultural imagination. Chapter 1 outlines the importation of Chinese books and manuscripts in relation to the center of scholarship and the main intellectual groups up until the twelfth century. Drawing on evidence from commentaries on the Wakan rōeishū (The Collection of Japanese and Chinese Poems for Recitation, 1013) and from The Tales of China (Kara monogatari, late Heian period) on the themes of exile and loyalty, I discuss the rising interests in referencing anecdotal literature and compiling intermediaries (dictionaries, encyclopedias, and commentaries) in the twelfth century that eventually contributed to the formation of a more popular, name-based understanding of Chinese history and literature. Chapter 2 investigates the Japanese medieval interpretations of Chinese official histories (“Chūsei Shiki”), which features a tension and negotiation between the canonical and the non-canonical texts and gravitates towards recurring themes, character types, and core values. In particular, I look into the themes of wisdom, virtue, loyalty, and filial piety in A Miscellany of Ten Maxims (Jikkinshō, 1252) and The Tales of the Heike (Heike monogatari, ca. 1308-1311), which were largely constructed from a relatively more classical, Tang-based perspective, in despite of the fact that Chinese Song dynasty culture had already been imported to Japan along with the introduction of Chinese Chan (J. Zen) Buddhism in the thirteenth through fourteenth centuries. In Chapter 3, I examine the Taiheiki (A Chronicle of Great Peace, 1340s-1371), a unique text that acts as a nexus for many themes of this project. Analyzing the use of Chinese tales, maxims and proverbs, and poetry in relation to the themes of loyalty, wisdom, righteousness, and filial piety, I show that, unlike The Tales of the Heike, the Taiheiki revealed a thriving concern with the Song culture, which involved new editions, new commentaries, and new poetic theory. I also show that a conceptual, term-based perception of Chinese culture was taking shape. Chapter 4 explores the suddenly intensified scholarly exchange among different intellectual groups – the Zen monks, the Shintō priests, warriors, and court aristocrats – in the fifteenth through sixteenth centuries. Tracing the threads of new books and new theories in Kiyohara Nobukata’s lecture notes on the Mōgyū (Inquiry of the Youth), The Twenty-Four Filial Exemplars, and the picture scroll (emaki) of the Xianyang Palace, I discuss the expansion of knowledge and audience from priests and aristocrats to influential military families and wealthy commoners in late medieval Japan, the formation of new imaginations regarding Chinese history and literature, and the final transition from a pro-Tang prospective to a Song-centered understanding of China. In conclusion, I argue for the literary and cultural reception and construction of Chinese culture as not only a large and complex source text, in a long history of Sino-Japanese intertextuality, but as a complex cultural construction that was packaged and modified, sometimes for easy consumption, to reinforce key values (such as loyalty and filial piety), and that was readily identified even by those with limited access to literary Sinitic. By illustrating the processes by which Chinese history and literature were largely filtered through and transmitted by intermediaries into medieval Japanese literary culture, this project provides a new history of the reception of Chinese culture in the Japanese literary imagination.

Les enseignements du bouddhisme theravāda, tels qu’ils sont consignés dans le Canon pāli (Tipiṭaka), font peu de cas de la piété filiale et du culte aux ancêtres. Cela n’est guère surprenant pour une religion qui repose sur l’éthique du kamma (selon laquelle la destinée d’un individu, strictement individuelle, résulte de ses actions dans cette vie ou dans une vie antérieure) et qui préconise, dans ses textes fondateurs, le renoncement aux liens filiaux et familiaux, souvent considérés comme une entrave sur la voie de la délivrance. Pour les bouddhistes lao en revanche, la dévotion à l’égard des parents, aïeuls et ancêtres est au centre de la vie religieuse et relève sans conteste de l’Enseignement du Buddha. L’aumône matinale, l’édification d’un bâtiment monastique, la consécration d’une statue du Maître ou d’une figure sainte, la commande d’un manuscrit, l’organisation d’une cérémonie d’ordination, l’exercice de la méditation, la participation à des cérémonies calendaires – à dire vrai, tout acte pieux – sont autant d’occasions de rendre hommage ou de porter assistance aux parents et aux esprits lignagers avec lesquels sont partagés les fruits de ces entreprises. L’objectif de cette étude est d’appréhender la place qu’occupent les ascendants familiaux dans le bouddhisme des Lao et de comprendre comment, et dans quelle mesure, ces derniers ont pu harmoniser des considérations sociales et familiales qui leur sont propres avec la doctrine du theravāda sur laquelle repose formellement leur spiritualité. / The Buddhist teachings of the Theravāda, as they are recorded in the Pāli canon (Tipiṭaka), demonstrate little concern for filial piety or ancestor cults. This is hardly surprising for a religion that rests on the ethic of kamma (according to which the fate of a being remains strictly individual, resulting only from his actions in this or previous existences) and recommends, at least in its founding texts, the renunciation of filial and familial ties, often regarded as an obstacle on the path to liberation. In contrast, Lao Buddhists consider that devotion towards parents, forebears and ancestors is at the core of religious life and undoubtedly belongs within the teaching of the Buddha. Giving alms, building a monastery, casting an image of the Master or a saint, commissioning a copy of a manuscript, receiving ordination, practising meditation, participating in annual festivals—more broadly, all kinds of pious deeds—are opportunities to pay homage or provide assistance to parents and lineage spirits, with whom the fruits of these actions will be shared. The purpose of this study is to consider the place occupied by parents and ancestors in Lao Buddhism and to understand how, and to what extent, the Lao have been able to harmonise their own social and familial accounts with the doctrine of the Theravāda, on which their spirituality is understood to rest.

The fast growth of the Chinese oldest old population indicates higher demand for long-term care. In China, families assume the primary responsibility of caring for older adults. Since the oldest elders are more likely to be widowed, their adult children usually become their caregivers. Focusing on the Chinese adult children who provide care for their oldest-old parents, this study documented and helped to explain Chinese adult children's caregiving strain. A conceptual framework was developed based on Pearlin's stress process theory, Higgins' framework of self-concept discrepancy, and previous studies on family caregivers of elders. Using an existing dataset from the 2005 Chinese Longitudinal Healthy Longevity Survey of 895 caregivers and their care recipients, the researcher tested whether and how caregiving context (caregiver's structured context and care recipients' needs for care), caregiving performance, and sibling support were related to five types of caregiving strain including sacrifice strain, exhaustion strain, capability strain, expectation strain, and dependency strain. The results indicate that caregiving context and caregiving performance are statistically related to different types of caregiver strain. Three independent variables in the set of caregiving context, self-evaluation of living standard, education, and cultural identity, were related to two types of caregiver strain in different directions. The caregivers who were the eldest sons, who were females caring for female elders, who had a close relationship with their care recipients, who lived with the care recipients, who provided care for the elders with more needs for care in ADL (Activities of Daily Living), or whose care recipients had health insurance reported higher levels of at least one type of caregiver strain. Care recipients' cognitive status and entitlement to pension were negatively related to at least one type of caregiver strain. Caregivers' rural residence, having a job outside the family, having a child under age 16, and care recipient's needs for care in IADL (Instrumental Activities of Daily Living) were not found to be related to any type of caregiver strain. Monetary assistance, which was indicated by the proportion of their annual household per capita income that the caregivers provided to care recipients, was found to be positively related to caregivers' capability strain. The amount of time spent in caregiving (time assistance) was positively related to three types of caregiver strain: exhaustion, expectation, and dependency strain. Time assistance was also found to mediate the relationship between care recipients' needs for care in ADL and caregivers' exhaustion strain and the relationship between dependency strain and three caregiving context variables: closeness between caregivers and care recipients, co-residence with care recipients, and care recipients' needs for care in ADL. The results revealed the importance of caregiving context and caregiving performance in explaining Chinese adult-child caregivers' experience and the necessity of investigating caregiver strain in different dimensions. This study contributes to understanding caregiver strain from a filial perspective. The results imply directions for future research, social work practice and education, and policy legislation in addressing Chinese adult children's strain in caring for their oldest-old parents.