Les effets respiratoires aigus des expositions journalières à des particules fines et ultrafines ne sont pas pleinement documentés pour les expositions professionnelles, même si de nombreux travailleurs sont exposés à des niveaux de particules considérablement plus élevés que dans l'environnement. Cela est en partie attribuable au manque de données sur l'exposition. Actuellement, les études évaluant les expositions professionnelles aux particules fines et ultrafines sont peu nombreuses et manquent de méthodes standardisées pour permettre une conclusion générale sur l'exposition des travailleurs. Les paramètres pour améliorer l'évaluation de l'exposition incluent l'harmonisation des stratégies d'échantillonnage et l'évaluation de la distribution des tailles (e.g. particules de diamètres médians de 2.5 et 4 µm et particules ultrafines), de la composition chimique et du potentiel oxydatif de ces particules. Ainsi, dans un contexte d'incertitude sur les risques respiratoires aigus, et considérant le grand nombre de travailleurs potentiellement exposés en l'absence de données d'exposition comparables entre les milieux de travail, les besoins de produire des nouvelles connaissances dans ce domaine sont énormes. Ainsi, l'objectif principal de cette thèse était d’estimer les risques associés à l’exposition journalière aux particules fines et ultrafines dans divers milieux de travail avec les trois sous-objectifs suivant: (1) estimer des niveaux de particules fines et ultrafines dans différents milieux de travail; (2) évaluer le potentiel oxydatif et le fardeau du potentiel oxydatif des expositions professionnelles aux particules fines dans deux milieux d'une école des métiers de la construction; (3) estimer, par une revue systématique et une méta-analyse, la relation entre les expositions professionnelles et environnementales à court terme (c.-à-d. journalière) aux particules fines et leurs effets respiratoires aigus sur la fonction pulmonaire. Pour le premier objectif, des mesures ont été effectuées pendant 12 jours d'échantillonnage dans une mine souterraine, un tunnel de métro, un atelier de réparation de camions et une fonderie. Des instruments à lecture directe et des mesures intégrées ont été utilisés et comprenaient des mesures de la concentration numérique, la concentration massique, la distribution granulométrique, la microscopie électronique à transmission et la composition (par exemple, le carbone total (CT) et le carbone élémentaire (CE)) des particules. Pour le deuxième objectif, le potentiel oxydatif (OPAA) et le fardeau oxydatif (OBAA) ont été évalués par le test d'ascorbate en utilisant un fluide de revêtement des voies respiratoires synthétique. Des échantillons personnels de PM4 (Nsoudage = 53; Nconstruction = 54) ont été prélevés dans la zone respiratoire, tandis que des mesures en postes fixes de PM4 (Nsoudage = 54; Nconstruction = 33) et de PM2.5 (Nsoudage = 53; Nconstruction = 34) ont été collectées à une distance d'environ 1,5 mètre des apprentis. Pour le troisième objectif, nous avons recherché des bases de données bibliographiques pour identifier les études portant sur les associations entre les expositions journalières aux particules fines (c.-à-d. PM2.5 et PM4) et les paramètres de la fonction pulmonaire (e.g. volume expiratoire forcé en 1 sec, FEV1) chez les adultes en bonne santé. Séparément pour les études environnementales et professionnelles, nous avons résumé les résultats à l'aide de méta-analyses à effets aléatoires lorsque cinq estimés d’association ou plus étaient disponibles. Les concentrations en nombre de particules les plus élevées ont été observées dans la mine souterraine, l’atelier de soudage et la fonderie. Pour les milieux de travail avec une exposition au diesel, la mine souterraine présentait la concentration numérique la plus élevée (134 000 particules/cm3) par rapport au tunnel de métro (32 800 particules/cm3) et à l'atelier de réparation de camions (22 700 particules/cm3). De plus, les concentrations massiques des particules fines, du CT et du CE étaient également plus élevées dans la mine souterraine par rapport aux autres milieux. Le ratio CT/CE était de 1,4 dans la mine, 2,5 dans le tunnel et 8,7 dans l'atelier, indiquant la présence d’une importante source de carbone organique non associée aux émanations de moteur diesel dans les milieux de travail non miniers. Cette source de carbone organique peut affecter l'estimation de l'exposition lorsque le CT est utilisé comme indicateur d'exposition au diesel. Les mesures de la distribution de la taille et les images capturées par microscopie à transmission électronique ont indiqué que les particules trouvées dans tous les milieux de travail étaient majoritairement dans la fraction ultrafine. Les particules collectées dans les milieux de travail ont été associés à différents niveaux de potentiel oxydatif. Les particules de soudage présentaient des niveaux plus élevés de OPAA (3,3 ρmol /min/µg) et OBAA (1750 ρmol/min/m3) que le site de construction (OPAA = 1,4 ρmol/min/µg; OBAA = 486 ρmol/min/m3). Ces niveaux d'OBAA dépassaient largement les niveaux trouvés dans l'environnement général. Dans les deux milieux de travail, les niveaux d'OPAA n'ont pas été influencés par les différentes stratégies d'échantillonnage (c.-à-d. mesures personnelles et en postes fixes) ou par la taille des particules (c.-à-d. PM2.5 et PM4). Cependant, en raison des concentrations de particules plus élevées, l'OBAA des échantillons personnels était significativement plus grand que celui des mesures d’ambiance dans l'atelier de soudage. La revue systématique et méta-analyse a montré que les associations entre les expositions journalières aux particules fines dans l’environnement général étaient plus prononcées qu’en milieu de travail pour un même incrément d'exposition. Une qu'une augmentation de 10 ug/m3 des expositions journalières aux particules fines respirables était associée à des réductions du FEV1 de 0,87 ml (IC à 95%: -1,36 à -0,37 ml; I2 = 54 %) dans les études professionnelles, et une augmentation similaire des particules fines était associée à une réduction de 7,62 mL (IC à 95%: -10,62 à -4,63 mL; I2 = 0%) dans les études environnementales. Des résultats similaires ont été observés pour les associations avec la capacité vitale forcée. En résumé, les résultats de cette thèse montrent que les travailleurs sont exposés à des niveaux importants de particules exprimées en termes de concentrations massiques et numériques, et que ces particules se trouvent principalement dans la fraction ultrafine. Les concentrations élevées de ces particules combinées à un potentiel oxydatif important entrainent un fardeau oxydatif qui dépasse largement celui d’études environnementales. De plus, les expositions professionnelles pendant un quart de travail entraineraient des effets sur la santé respiratoire décrits en termes de réduction de la fonction pulmonaire des travailleurs. À la lumière de ces résultats, des améliorations des pratiques d'hygiène industrielle et de la surveillance de l'exposition aux particules fines et ultrafines dans les milieux de travail sont nécessaires pour contrôler et limiter les risques sanitaires potentiels des expositions journalières à ces polluants. / Respiratory effects, such as lung function, of short-term exposures to fine and ultrafine particles are not well documented for occupational exposures, even though many workers are exposed daily to levels considerably higher than in the general environment. This limited understanding can be attributed to the lack of exposure data. Currently, studies assessing occupational exposures to fine particles and ultrafine fraction are few and lack standardized methods to allow a general conclusion about workers’ exposures. The steps for improving exposure assessment include the harmonization of sampling strategies and the assessment of additional information related to the size distribution (e.g. particles of median diameter of 2.5 and 4 µm, and ultrafine particles), chemical composition, and the oxidative potential of these particles. Thus, in a context of uncertainty about the acute respiratory risks, with many potentially exposed workers and in the absence of comparable exposure data, the needs for developing knowledge in this field are enormous. Hence, the main objective of this thesis was to estimate the risk of daily exposures to fine and ultrafine particles in various workplaces with three specific objectives: (1) to quantify and characterize exposures to fine and ultrafine particles in different workplaces in Québec by an innovative multi-metric approach; (2) to estimate the oxidative potential and oxidative burden of particles in two occupational settings from a construction trades school; (3) to separately estimate, by a systematic review and meta-analysis, the associations between short-term (i.e. daily and sub-daily) occupational and environmental exposures to fine particles and its acute respiratory effects on lung function in healthy adults. For the first objective, measurements were performed in an underground mine, a subway tunnel, a truck repair workshop, and a smelting industry for at least 12 sampling days each. Direct-reading instruments and filter-based methods were used and included measurements of the number concentration, mass concentration, size distribution, transmission electron microscopy and composition (e.g. Total carbon (TC) and elemental carbon (EC)) of particles. For the second objective, the oxidative potential (OPAA) and oxidative burden (OBAA) were assessed by the ascorbate assay with a synthetic respiratory tract lining fluid. Personal PM4 (Nwelding = 53; Nconstruction = 54) samples were collected from the breathing zone, while area samples of both PM4 (Nwelding = 54; Nconstruction = 33) and PM2.5 fractions (Nwelding = 53; Nconstruction = 34) were collected at distances of around 1.5 meter from the apprentices. For the third objective, we searched bibliographic databases to identify studies investigating associations between daily and sub-daily exposures to fine particles (i.e. PM2.5 and PM4) and lung function parameters (e.g. Forced Expiratory Volume in 1 sec, FEV1) in healthy adults. Separately for environmental and occupational studies, we summarized findings using random-effects meta-analyses when five or more independent estimates of association were available. The highest particle number concentrations were observed in the underground mine, welding shop and smelting industry. For the workplaces with diesel exposure, the underground mine had the highest geometric mean of particle number concentration (134,000 particles/cm3) compared to the subway tunnel (32,800 particles/cm3) and the truck repair workshop (22,700 particles/cm3). This same pattern of exposure in these workplaces were also observed for the mass concentration of fine particles, TC and EC. The TC/EC ratio was 1.4 in the mine, 2.5 in the tunnel and 8.7 in the workshop, indicating significant organic carbon interference in the non-mining workplaces that can affect exposure estimation when TC is used as an indicator of diesel exposure. Measurements of the size distribution and images captured by transmission electron microscopy indicated that the particles found in all workplaces were mainly in the ultrafine size fraction. Particles collected in the welding shop and construction site were associated with important levels of redox activity. Welding particles had higher OPAA (3.3 ρmol/min/µg) and OBAA (1,750 ρmol/min/m3) compared to the construction site (OPAA = 1.4 ρmol/min/µg; OBAA = 486 ρmol/min/m3). These levels of OBAA largely exceeded the levels found in environmental settings. In both workplaces, OPAA levels were not influenced by the different sampling strategies (i.e. area versus personal measurements) or size fractions (i.e. PM2.5 and PM4). However, driven by the higher particulate matter concentrations, the OBAA from personal samples was higher compared to area samples in the welding shop. The systematic review and meta-analysis showed that associations between daily exposures to fine particles and lung function in environmental settings were more pronounced than in occupational settings for a same exposure increment. An increase of 10 µg/m3 in the daily and sub-daily exposures to respirable fine particles were associated with FEV1 reductions of 0.87 mL (95% CI: -1.36 to -0.37 mL; I2= 54%) in occupational studies, and a similar increase in fine particles was associated with a reduction of 7.63 mL (95% CI: -10.62 to -4.63 mL; I2= 0%) in environmental studies. Similar results were observed for associations with the forced vital capacity. In summary, this thesis’s results showed that workers are exposed to important levels of particles expressed in terms of mass and number concentrations, and these particles are mainly in the ultrafine size range. The high particulate matter concentrations combined with an elevated oxidative potential resulted in significant levels of oxidative burden that largely exceeded those from environmental settings. Also, occupational exposures during a work shift may result in respiratory health effects described in terms of reduction in workers’ lung function. Based on our results, improvements in industrial hygiene practices and the surveillance of exposure to fine and ultrafine particles in the workplace are needed to control and limit potential health risks of daily exposure to these pollutants.

L'association entre l'exposition prolongée aux particules fines (PM2.5) et la mortalité pourrait varier selon les méthodes de contrôle de la confusion. L'objectif était de comparer les estimations de cette association issues d’approches avec différentes méthodes pour le contrôle de la confusion. En utilisant la cohorte du Système de surveillance des maladies chroniques du Québec (SISMACQ), les estimations d'association provenant d’une régression de Cox avec contraste interindividuel et d’une régression conditionnelle logistique stratifiée sur les cas avec contraste intra-individuel ont été comparées. De plus, les estimations d’association de modèles de Cox ajustés pour des variables individuelles et locales, et ajustés seulement pour des variables locales, en utilisant la cohorte Santé et environnement du recensement canadien (CSERcan) pour la province de Québec ont été comparées afin d’évaluer comment les estimations d’association varient avec les variables incluses dans les modèles. Quatre-vingt-dix-huit millions de personées-années du SISMACQ ont été enregistrées. Des augmentations de la mortalité de 3,0% (Intervalles de confiance [IC à 95%] 1,8-4,3) et de 9,3% (IC à 95%] 4,1-14,8) par augmentation de 3,4 µg/m3 ont été observées pour la régression de Cox et la régression logistique, respectivement. Vingt et un millions de personnes-années de la cohorte CSERcan ont été enregistrées. Des augmentations de la mortalité de 2,2% (IC à 95% : 1,9-2,5) et de 0,8% (IC à 95% :0,6-1,0) par 1 µg/m3 ont été observées pour le modèle ajusté pour des variables individuelles et locales, et pour celui ajusté pour des variables locales seulement. Ces résultats confirment l'association entre l'exposition prolongée aux PM2.5 et la mortalité, et suggèrent que les méthodes de contrôle de la confusion peuvent influencer l’importance et la variabilité de ces estimations. / The association between long-term exposure to ambient fine particles (PM2.5) and mortality may vary depending on the methods of confounding control. The objective was to compare estimates of association using approaches varying by their confounding control methods. Using the cohort from the Quebec Integrated Chronic Disease Surveillance System (SISMACQ), association estimates from a Cox proportional hazard model with inter-individual contrast and from a conditional logistic regression with intra-individual contrast were compared. Additionally, results from Cox models adjusted for individual and local confounders, and adjusted only for local confounders using the Canadian Census Health and Environment Cohorts (CSERcan) for the province of Quebec were compared to evaluate how estimates vary when adjusting for individual and contextual confounders compared to adjusting for contextual factors only. For the SISMACQ cohort, 98 million person-years were recorded. Increase in mortality of 3.0% (95% CI: 1.8, 4.3) and of 9.3% (95% CI: 4.1, 14.8) were observed per 3.4 µg/m3 increment in exposure for the Cox model and conditional logistic regression. For the CSERcan cohort, 21 million person-years were recorded. Increase in mortality of 2.2% (95% CI: 1.9, 2.5) and of 0.8% (95% CI: 0.6, 1.0) were observed per 1 µg/m3 increment in exposure for the model adjusted for both local and individual confounders, and for the model adjusted only for local confounders. These results confirm the association between long-term exposure tom PM2.5 and mortality, and suggest that confounding control methods can influence the magnitude and variability of estimates of association.

Marine aerosols have attracted increasing attention over the past 15 years because of their potential significance for global climate modelling. The size distribution of these aerosols extends from super-micrometer sea salt mode particles down through 150 nm accumulation mode particles, 40 nm Aitken mode particles and nucleation mode particles which extend from 25 nm right down to clusters of a few molecules. The process by which the submicrometer modes form and grow and their composition have remained topics of debate throughout this time in large part because of the difficulties associated with determining their composition and relating it to proposed models of the formation process. The work compared the modality of marine aerosol influencing the South-east-Queensland region with that of other environmental aerosols in the region. The aerosol was found to be consistent with marine aerosols observed elsewhere with concentrations below 1000 cm-3 and frequently exhibiting the distinct bimodal structure associated with cloud processing, consisting of an Aitken mode at approximately 40 nm, an accumulation mode in the range 100-200 nm and a coarse mode attributed to sea salt between 600 and 1200 nm. This work included the development of two new techniques for aerosol research. The first technique measures aerosol density using a combination of aerosol size distribution and gravimetric mass concentration measurements. This technique was used to measure the density of a number of submicrometer aerosols including laboratory generated NaCl aerosol and ambient aerosol. The densities for the laboratory generated aerosols were found to be similar to those for the bulk materials used to produce them. The technique, extended to super-micrometer particle size range may find application in ambient aerosol research where it could be used to discriminate between periods when the aerosol is dominated by NaCl and periods when the density is more representative of crustal material or sulfates. The technique may also prove useful in laboratory or industrial settings for investigating particle density or in case where the composition is known, morphology and porosity. The second technique developed, integrates the existing physicochemical techniques of volatilisation and hygroscopic growth analysis to investigate particle composition in terms of both the volatilisation temperatures of the chemical constituents and their contribution to particle hygroscopic behaviour. The resulting volatilisation and humidification tandem differential mobility analyser or VH-TDMA, has proven to be a valuable research tool which is being used in ongoing research. Findings of investigations relating the composition of the submicrometer marine aerosol modes to candidate models for their formation are presented. Sea salt was not found in the numerically dominant particle type in coastal nucleation mode or marine Aitken and accumulation modes examined on the Southeast Queensland coast during periods where back trajectories indicated marine origin. The work suggests that all three submicrometer modes contain the same four volatile chemical species and an insoluble non-volatile residue. The volatility and hygroscopic behaviours of the particles are consistent with a composition consisting of a core composed of sulfuric acid, ammonium sulfate and an iodine oxide coated with a volatile organic compound. The volume fraction of the sulfuric acid like species in the particles shows a strong dependence on particle size.

Nano-particle aerosols are one of the major types of air pollutants in the urban indoor and outdoor environments. Therefore, determination of mechanisms of formation, dispersion, evolution, and transformation of combustion aerosols near the major source of this type of air pollution - busy roads and road networks - is one of the most essential and urgent goals. This Thesis addresses this particular direction of research by filling in gaps in the existing physical understanding of aerosol behaviour and evolution. The applicability of the Gaussian plume model to combustion aerosols near busy roads is discussed and used for the numerical analysis of aerosol dispersion. New methods of determination of emission factors from the average fleet on a road and from different types of vehicles are developed. Strong and fast evolution processes in combustion aerosols near busy roads are discovered experimentally, interpreted, modelled, and statistically analysed. A new major mechanism of aerosol evolution based on the intensive thermal fragmentation of nano-particles is proposed, discussed and modelled. A comprehensive interpretation of mutual transformations of particle modes, a strong maximum of the total number concentration at an optimal distance from the road, increase of the proportion of small nano-particles far from the road is suggested. Modelling of the new mechanism is developed on the basis of the theory of turbulent diffusion, kinetic equations, and theory of stochastic evaporation/degradation processes. Several new powerful statistical methods of analysis are developed for comprehensive data analysis in the presence of strong turbulent mixing and stochastic fluctuations of environmental factors and parameters. These methods are based upon the moving average approach, multi-variate and canonical correlation analyses. As a result, an important new physical insight into the relationships/interactions between particle modes, atmospheric parameters and traffic conditions is presented. In particular, a new definition of particle modes as groups of particles with similar diameters, characterised by strong mutual correlations, is introduced. Likely sources of different particle modes near a busy road are identified and investigated. Strong anti-correlations between some of the particle modes are discovered and interpreted using the derived fragmentation theorem. The results obtained in this thesis will be important for accurate prediction of aerosol pollution levels in the outdoor and indoor environments, for the reliable determination of human exposure and impact of transport emissions on the environment on local and possibly global scales. This work will also be important for the development of reliable and scientifically-based national and international standards for nano-particle emissions.

In the present work, novel dewatering aids and a novel centrifuge configuration were developed and applied for the purpose of dewatering fine particles. Three different types dewatering reagents were tested in different filtration and centrifugation units. These chemicals included low-HLB surfactants, naturally occurring lipids, and modified lipids. Most of these reagents are insoluble in water; therefore, they were used in solutions of appropriate solvents, such as light hydrocarbon oils and short-chain alcohols. The role of these reagents was to increase the hydrophobicity of the coal and selected mineral particles (chalcopyrite, sphalerite, galena, talc, clay, phosphate, PCC and silica) for the dewatering. In the presence of these reagents, the water contact angles on the coal samples were increased up to 90o. According to the Laplace equation, an increase in contact angle with the surfactant addition should decrease the capillary pressure in a filter cake, which should in turn increase the rate of dewatering and help reduce the cake moisture. The use of the novel dewatering aids causes a decrease in the surface tension of water and an increase in the porosity of the cake, both of which also contribute to improved dewatering. A series of batch-scale dewatering tests were conducted on a variety of the coal and mineral samples using the novel dewatering aids. The results obtained with a Buchner funnel and air pressure filters showed that cake moistures could be reduced substantially, the extent of which depends on the particle size, cake thickness, drying time, reagent dosage, conditioning time, reagent type, sample aging, water chemistry, etc. It was determined that use of the novel dewatering aids could reduce the cake formation time by a significant degree due to the increased kinetics of dewatering. At the same time, the use of the dewatering aids reduced the cake moistures by allowing the water trapped in smaller capillaries of the filter cake. It was found that final cake moistures could be reduced by 50% of what can be normally achieved without using the reagents. However, the moisture reduction becomes difficult with increasing cake thickness. This problem can be minimized by applying a mechanical vibration to the cake, spraying a short-chain alcohol on the cake and by adding a small amount of an appropriate coagulant, such as alum and CaCl2 to the coal and mineral slurries. The novel dewatering aids were also tested using several different continuous filters, including a drum filter, disc filter and horizontal belt filter (HBF). The results obtained with these continuous filtration devices were consistent with those obtained from the batch filters. Depending on the coal and mineral samples and the type of the reagent, 40 to 60% reductions in moisture were readily achieved. When using vacuum disc filters, the cake thickness increased substantially in the presence of the novel dewatering aids, which could be attributed to the increased kinetics of dewatering. A dual vacuum system was developed in the present work in order to be able to control the cake thickness, which was necessary to achieve lower cake moistures. It was based on using a lower vacuum pressure during the cake formation time, while a full vacuum pressure was used during the drying cycle time. Thus, use of the dual vacuum system allowed the disc filter to be used in conjunction with the novel dewatering aids. Its performance was similar to that of HBF, which is designed to control cake thickness and cake formation time independently. The effectiveness of using the novel dewatering aids were also tested in a full-continuous pilot plant, in which coal samples were cleaned by a flotation column before the flotation product was subjected to the disc filter. The tests were conducted with and without using novel dewatering aids. These results were consistent with those obtained from the laboratory and batch-scale tests. The novel centrifuge developed in the present work was a unit, which combined a gravity force and air pressure. The new centrifuge was based on increasing the pressure drop across the filter cake formed on the surface of the medium (centrifuge wall). This provision made it possible to take advantage of Darcy s law and improve the removal of capillary water, which should help lower the cake moisture. A series of tests were conducted on several fine coal and mineral particles and obtained more than 50% moisture reduction even at very fine particle size (2 mm x 0). Based on the test results obtained in the present work, two proof-of-concept (POC) plants have been designed. The first was for the recovery of cyclone overflows that are currently being discarded in Virginia, and the other was for the recovery of fines from a pond in southern West Virginia. The former was designed based on the results of the plant tests conducted in the present work. Cost vs. benefit analyses were conducted on the two POC plants. The results showed very favorable internal rates of return when using the novel dewatering aids. Surface chemistry studies were conducted on the coal samples based on the results obtained in the present investigation. These consisted mainly of the surface characterization of the coal samples (surface mineral composition, surface area, zeta potential, x-ray photoelectron microscopy (XPS)), acid-base interactions of the solids and liquids, dewatering kinetic tests, contact angle measurements of the coal samples and surface force measurements using AFM. In addition, carbon coating on a silica plate using palsed laser deposition (PLD) and Langmuir-Blodgett (LB) film deposition tests were conducted on the sample to better understand the surfactant adsorption and dewatering processes. The test results showed that the moisture reductions on the fine particles agree well with the surface chemistry results. / Ph. D.