The practice of science in the search for the First Americans is a flawed endeavor. Not only is science constrained by the shifting centers of cultural power external to science, but also by the institutions, elites, and cognitive values internal to science. Substantive disagreement over a cultural past is a reflection of unstabilized power relationships in the present. Although science traditionally is believed to speak truth to governmental power, federal law dictates that American Indian traditions hold an epistemological status equal to the methods of science when determining the cultural affiliation of, and access to, pre-European human remains. Consequently, discovery and examination of the most important First American artifacts occur only as a product of a negotiation between scientists and the very groups that frequently oppose them. This is a case study of the practice of science in its search for the First Americans in this unstable environment. This dissertation deconstructs: (1) the conflicts between the methods of science and the traditional beliefs of modern American Indians; (2) the power struggles for primacy of place internal to the sciences themselves; and (3) the interactions with external authorities such as government agencies, the press, universities, and museums. It is an examination into how the issues have been defined and how differences in cultural myths, scientific theories, research methodologies and public policy remain unsettled in modern America. It is an investigation of the blurred boundaries between science and myth as well as between fact and theory that ultimately weaken the credibility of science as a cultural mechanism for interpreting the natural world. Finally, this dissertation concludes that the absence of a firm American cultural ground upon which to place an epistemological fulcrum has greatly contributed not only to the First American identity search remaining unresolved, but also to the instability of the very science which is conducting the search. / Ph. D.

This thesis presents an investigation into Paleoindian projectile-point morphology. A goal of this research is to determine if evidence of a normative cultural manufacturing protocol can be identified on Clovis projectile points which can then be used to address research questions concerning Clovis point variability, and ultimately, the spread of this tool-form across North America. This paper addresses obstacles to behavioral investigations of stone tool morphology such as the effects of resharpening and raw material type on tool shape. I argue that a culturally normative process of manufacture was maintained throughout the life-history of Clovis projectile points which translated into a specific shape maintained to the time of exhaustion and discard. As an analytical tool, this study utilizes the geometric morphometric method to retain the geometry of each artifact throughout analysis by focusing on spatial covariation among landmarks uniformly found on each tool. This thesis investigates variability in 123 fluted projectile points from 23 archaeological sites in North America which met criteria meant to control for security of context in the archaeological record. Principle components describing the shape-variability inherent in this data-set were generated using geometric morphometrics and multivariate statistical analyses were employed to identify major factors of variability. This research concluded that Clovis projectile-point shape was determined by normative cultural behavior maintained throughout the life of the artifact and not the result of raw material type or resharpening processes. Therefore, the projectile-point variability found to be geographically patterned provided evidence of Paleoindian movement and the spread of tool form. Multivariate analysis of variance determined that a regional trend in variability was present. The distribution of within-site variance suggested that artifacts from sites in the West were very homogeneous while artifacts from Eastern sites were more variable. The multivariate cluster and discriminant function analyses also demonstrated a closer affinity between artifacts in the Southwest and Northwest than either has with the Northeast. The similarities in projectile point morphology between the Southwest and Northwest regions suggest movement beginning with a Southwest point of origin from which Pleistocene peoples may have carried their fluted point technology north and east.

Well-preserved plant remains recovered from archaeological deposits at the Paisley Five-Mile Point Caves and Little Steamboat Point-1 Rockshelter in southcentral Oregon provided a rare opportunity to study ancient plant resources used by northern Great Basin indigenous groups and their ancestors with Western Stemmed technologies. Macrobotanical analysis of cultural features and vertical columns spanning the Terminal Pleistocene and Holocene epochs in the rockshelter repositories yielded thousands of seeds and charcoal fragments that can be attributed to human activities. Data generated in this analysis have provided evidence of paleoenvironments along with the diets and social behaviors of people visiting northern Great Basin rockshelters as a stopover on their seasonal subsistence rounds. The preponderance of upland shrubs and herbs in the assemblages at both archaeological sites indicates vegetation in the immediate vicinity of the rockshelters was fairly stable over the past 14,000 years. The macrobotanical data complemented local and regional pollen analyses to refine the paleoecological proxy data and address uncertainties regarding the proximity of wetland plants and pine (Pinus sp.) to the rockshelters in the past. Samples originating from Younger Dryas deposits at the Paisley Caves and Late Holocene deposits at the Paisley Caves and LSP-1 Rockshelter suggest increased visitation frequency in these periods. The diverse assemblage of cultural plant remains during these times also indicate a broad diet breadth for Great Basin foragers, which included small seeds, nuts and berries, and root vegetables. The presence of an earth oven feature dating to the Terminal Pleistocene/Early Holocene (TP/EH) in Paisley Cave 5 further demonstrates sophisticated traditional knowledge of plant foods and cooking techniques as early as 12,000 cal BP. This study also generated data chronicling the deep historical roots of traditionally valued economic plant foods. Cheno-ams, grasses (Poaceae), and tansymustards (Descurainia sp.) are well-represented in fire hearths at the Paisley Caves and LSP-1 Rockshelter through time. Analysis of a bushytailed woodrat (Neotoma cinerea) nest in deposits dating to the TP/EH demonstrates rodents living in the Paisley Caves routinely scavenged resources from cultural activity areas, and raised questions about whether people recognized the woodrats’ nests as a reliable resource of cached edible seeds.

As a way of introducing this issue, the current status of archaeological research on the earliest Andean cultures is discussed briefly, with major emphasis given to new trends and their implications, as well as future needs in this subdiscipline. The primary focus of each paper is also considered in terms of the wider technological, economic, demographic and ecological contexts, and its contribution to the early archaeology of the Andes from Colombia to Chile and Argentina. / A manera de introducción a la temática de este número, se trata, de manera breve, el estado actual de la investigación arqueológica de las culturas andinas más antiguas, con un mayor énfasis en las nuevas tendencias y sus implicancias, así como en las necesidades futuras de esta subdisciplina. Asimismo, se considera el enfoque principal de cada artículo en términos de los más amplios contextos tecnológicos, económicos, demográficos y ecológicos, y su aporte a la arqueología temprana de los Andes, desde Colombia hasta Chile y Argentina.

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A região de Lagoa Santa é mundialmente famosa pela quantidade, qualidade e antiguidade dos remanescentes esqueletais humanos nela encontrados. Entretanto, muito pouco é conhecido sobre as práticas mortuárias dos grupos que ocuparam a região. A versão vigente na literatura é que essas eram extremamente simples, expeditas e homogêneas. Na presente dissertação esse quadro é questionado. A partir da descrição dos 26 sepultamentos encontrados na Lapa do Santo, foi possível determinar que diferentes padrões funerários se sucederam ao longo do Holoceno. Portanto, as práticas mortuárias da região não apresentam a alegada homogeneidade cronológica. Dentre os padrões de sepultamento identificados no sítio, o de número 1 se destaca não só pela sua antiguidade (8800-8200 AP), mas por apresentar uma forte ênfase na manipulação do corpo, incluindo o caso de decapitação mais antigo do Novo Mundo. Portanto, o registro da Lapa do Santo indica um quadro muito mais complexo e sofisticado para a paisagem mortuária da região de Lagoa Santa do que aquele proposto pela literatura. Mais do que isso, mostra que, ao contrário do que se imaginava, a ênfase na manipulação do corpo no início do Holoceno não era uma característica limitada à região andina. / The Lagoa Santa region is famous for the quantity, quality and antiquity of its human skeletal remains. However, little is known about the mortuary practices of those who inhabited the region. According to literature this practices were very simple, expedient and homogeneous. In this dissertation, this scenario is challenged. Based on the descriptions of 26 human burials found in Lapa do Santo it was established that several distinct burial patterns occurred in the site during Holocene. Thereafter, the idea that in Lagoa Santa the mortuary practices were chronologically homogeneous can no longer be supported. Among the different burial patterns indentified in this site Pattern 1 highlights not only for its antiquity (8800-8200 BP) but also because it presents a strong emphasis in the manipulation of the body, including the oldest case of decapitation ever recorded in the New World. Thereafter, the burials from Lapa do Santo points to a more complex scenario for the mortuary practices in the region of Lagoa Santa than was previously though. Besides, it shows that contrary to was once believed, the emphasis on body manipulation during Early Holocene was not restricted to the Andean region, as was once thought. The mortuary practices of pre-historic hunter-gatherers from Lagoa Santa region: a case study of the Santo Rockshelter archaeological site.

A região de Lagoa Santa é mundialmente famosa pela quantidade, qualidade e antiguidade dos remanescentes esqueletais humanos nela encontrados. Entretanto, muito pouco é conhecido sobre as práticas mortuárias dos grupos que ocuparam a região. A versão vigente na literatura é que essas eram extremamente simples, expeditas e homogêneas. Na presente dissertação esse quadro é questionado. A partir da descrição dos 26 sepultamentos encontrados na Lapa do Santo, foi possível determinar que diferentes padrões funerários se sucederam ao longo do Holoceno. Portanto, as práticas mortuárias da região não apresentam a alegada homogeneidade cronológica. Dentre os padrões de sepultamento identificados no sítio, o de número 1 se destaca não só pela sua antiguidade (8800-8200 AP), mas por apresentar uma forte ênfase na manipulação do corpo, incluindo o caso de decapitação mais antigo do Novo Mundo. Portanto, o registro da Lapa do Santo indica um quadro muito mais complexo e sofisticado para a paisagem mortuária da região de Lagoa Santa do que aquele proposto pela literatura. Mais do que isso, mostra que, ao contrário do que se imaginava, a ênfase na manipulação do corpo no início do Holoceno não era uma característica limitada à região andina. / The Lagoa Santa region is famous for the quantity, quality and antiquity of its human skeletal remains. However, little is known about the mortuary practices of those who inhabited the region. According to literature this practices were very simple, expedient and homogeneous. In this dissertation, this scenario is challenged. Based on the descriptions of 26 human burials found in Lapa do Santo it was established that several distinct burial patterns occurred in the site during Holocene. Thereafter, the idea that in Lagoa Santa the mortuary practices were chronologically homogeneous can no longer be supported. Among the different burial patterns indentified in this site Pattern 1 highlights not only for its antiquity (8800-8200 BP) but also because it presents a strong emphasis in the manipulation of the body, including the oldest case of decapitation ever recorded in the New World. Thereafter, the burials from Lapa do Santo points to a more complex scenario for the mortuary practices in the region of Lagoa Santa than was previously though. Besides, it shows that contrary to was once believed, the emphasis on body manipulation during Early Holocene was not restricted to the Andean region, as was once thought. The mortuary practices of pre-historic hunter-gatherers from Lagoa Santa region: a case study of the Santo Rockshelter archaeological site.