A capacidade de dispersão e parasitismo de D. longicaudata, proveniente de larvas de Ceratitis capitata (linhagem Ceratitis) e de Anastrepha fraterculus (linhagem Anastrepha) foi avaliada após liberação em pomar de goiaba. Onze liberações de cerca de 3.000 parasitoides foram realizadas entre março de 2014 e abril de 2015 no centro de um talhão de 15 ha de goiaba localizado no Projeto de Irrigação do Jaíba (15°14\'03.7\"S 43°56\'54.0\"W), em Jaíba, MG, Brasil. A dispersão foi monitorada, a partir de um ponto central de liberação, nas direções cardeais e colaterais, a uma distância de 6 m até 272 m, distantes 12 m entre si nas direções cardeais e 17 m nas colaterais. Em cada ponto uma \"unidade de parasitismo\", ou seja, um sache com cerca de 20 larvas de terceiro instar do hospedeiro mais dieta envoltos em tecido voile, foi pendurada. Larvas de C. capitata e de A. fraterculus foram oferecidas para recuperar os parasitoides em cinco liberações onde os parasitoides não tiveram escolha pelo hospedeiro e outras seis onde tiveram escolha. As \"unidades de parasitismo\" permaneceram 24 h no pomar quando foram substituídas por novas, também retiradas após 24h. Após sete e 15 dias novas \"unidades de parasitismo\" foram distribuídas e mantidas por 24 h. Foram verificadas a porcentagem de parasitismo, razão sexual, mortalidade das larvas hospedeiras e a direção de dispersão. Os dados foram analisados utilizando modelos lineares generalizados de efeito misto através do sistema estatístico R. A distância média de dispersão (DM) e a área de dispersão (S²) de D. longicaudata foram determinadas utilizando-se o modelo proposto por Dobzhansky e Wright. O total de 10.351 parasitoides foi recuperado, todos pertencentes à espécie D. longicaudata, 769 provenientes do hospedeiro A. fraterculus e 9.582 de C. capitata. A mortalidade das larvas foi maior para o hospedeiro A. fraterculus. A razão sexual foi preferencialmente (ou tendeu) para machos e diferiu apenas entre os hospedeiros, sendo maior em parasitoides recuperados de A. fraterculus (0,34), independente da linhagem liberada. Nenhuma variável climática analisada influenciou o parasitismo ou a mortalidade das larvas. A linhagem Ceratitis foi a que mais se dispersou e parasitou larvas até a distância máxima de 173 m e atingiu uma área de dispersão de até 34.067,17m². As duas linhagens do parasitoide se dispersaram em todas as direções, mas demonstraram uma tendência a se dispersar para a direção leste. As duas linhagens foram capazes de sobreviver e parasitar larvas de A. fraterculus e C. capitata por até 15 dias após sua liberação, mas, número maior de exemplares da linhagem Anastrepha foi recuperado após 15 dias parasitando larvas dos dois hospedeiros. A linhagem Anastrepha proporcionou os mais altos índices de parasitismo nas maiores distâncias do ponto de liberação e a linhagem Ceratitis em pontos mais próximos. Com base na maior capacidade de sobrevivência em condição de semiárido, maior capacidade de parasitismo em distâncias maiores do ponto de liberação e na área de dispersão média obtida (27.368,24 m²) recomenda-se a liberação de 3.000 parasitoides da linhagem Anastrepha a cada 2,7 ha de goiaba / The ability of dispersal and parasitism of Diachasmimorpha longicaudata reared with the larval host of Ceratitis capitata (Ceratitis strain) and Anastrepha fraterculus (Anastrepha strain) was evaluated in a guava orchard. Eleven releases of approximately 3,000 parasitoids were conducted between March 2014 and April 2015 at the center of a 15-ha guava orchard located in the Jaíba Irrigation Project area (15°14?03.7?S, 43°56?54.0?W) in Jaíba, State of Minas Gerais, Brazil. The dispersal of Diachasmimorpha longicaudata was monitored within a distance of 6 m to 272 m from a central point of release to the cardinal and collateral directions; each cardinal and collateral direction point was located at a distance of 12 m and 17 m from each other, respectively. At each point, a \"parasitism unit\", that comprised a sachet made of voile fabric containing 20 third instar larval host more diet was hung. Larvae of C. capitata and A. fraterculus were offered to recover the parasitoids into five releases where the parasitoids had no choice by the host and six where they had choice. The \"parasitism units\" remained for 24 hours in the orchard when they were replaced with new ones, also remained for 24 hours. After 7 and 15 days others \"parasitism units\" were distributed and maintained for 24 h. Observations on parasitism, sex ratio, mortality of host larvae, and the direction of dispersal were made for each time point. Data were analyzed using the general linear models and mixed effect models by the R statistical system. The average distance dispersion (DM) and the dispersion area (S²) of D. longicaudata were determined using the model proposed by Dobzhansky and Wright. A total of 10,351 parasitoids was recovered, all belonging to D. longicaudata, 769 from the host A. fraterculus and 9,582 from C. capitata. Larval mortality was higher in A. fraterculus. The sex ratio showed a tendency for males and differed between the hosts; the number of males was higher in the parasitoids recovered from A. fraterculus (0.34), regardless of the strain of D. longicaudata released. Parasitism or larval mortality was not influenced by any of the climatic variables analyzed. The Ceratitis strain was most dispersed and parasitized larvae up to a maximum distance of 173 m and scattering area of up to 34,067.17 m². Both parasitoid strains scattered in all directions, but showed a tendency to disperse toward the east. The two strains were able to survive and parasitize the larvae of A. fraterculus and C. capitata for up to 15 days after its release, but more number of the Anastrepha strain were recovered after 15 days of parasitizing the larvae of the two hosts. The Anastrepha strain showed the highest parasitism rate over larger distances from the point of release, while the Ceratitis strain parasitized the larval hosts close to the release points. Based on the highest survival in semiarid conditions, the higher parasitism capacity at greater distances from the point of release, and the average obtained dispersion area (27,368.24 m²), we recommend the release of 3,000 parasitoids of Anastrepha strain in every 2.7 ha of guava orchards

The importance of showing that Drosophila are capable of learning an instrumental response would, with the information already known from genetic studies, enable researchers to possibly isolate the genetic basis of a simple learning process and thus gain greater insight into this phenomenon. If a reliable technique can be found for earning in Drosophila, a new field of research would be opened which could greatly add to our knowledge of the evolution of behavior. The following two studies attempted to demonstrate that Drosophila can learn and also investigated which system, vision or olfaction, serves best in this capacity.

Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis (IUPUI) / Development rate is a quantitative trait that displays significant variation within many species, including Cochliomyia macellaria Meigen (Diptera: Calliphoridae). Calliphorids are a family of dipterans known as blow flies and are commonly used in forensic entomology to estimate the minimum postmortem interval (PMIMIN), given some assumptions are made. In order to dissect the genetic underpinnings of development rate variation in this species, artificial selection for fast and slow development with population-based resequencing was used. The objective of this study is to isolate and characterize genomic regions that are correlated to development rate variation in blow flies. The first approach used known regulatory development genes from Drosophila melanogaster Meigen (Diptera: Drosophilidae) and isolated variants that were associated with development time changes in artificially selected fast and slow development C. macellaria strains. Three variants located in Ras and Eip74EF were associated with fast or slow development in selection strains with a significant change in allele frequency. The second approach involved the comparison of pooled artificially selected fast and slow C. macellaria genomes to investigate the genetic basis of development rate variation. When comparing the fast and slow genomes, 699 sequences were identified that contained 7290 variants with consistent changes in allele frequency. The variants indicated that the genomic regions that are associated with development rate were associated with developmental processes, including regulation of RNA polymerase II activity, and transporter activity, such as protein dimerization. Of the 699 sequences, 69 sequences were related to Achaete-scute complex and 14 were related to Cyp12A7. The identification of the genomic regions that associated with development rates from this study provides an important resource for future studies in identifying potential genetic markers to increase the effectiveness of PMIMIN estimates. By using significantly associated variants as a priori candidates for future studies, the data increases the understanding of natural development variation in blow flies.

<p>A study of the tarsi and mouthparts of females in three representative genera of tabanids revealed that the ventro-lateral surface of the fore-tarsi and the aboral margin of the labella were the principal loci of contact chemical sensilla. Of the four main types of aboral labellar trichodes (A,B,C and D), two (B and C) proved to be gustatory and then only at the tip. Two other types of trichodes (E and F) were identified on the anterior aspect of the labella. These were different from the aboral setae (type A,B,C, and D) in shape, size and function. </p><p>Extension of the proboscis was taken as the index of positive tarsal stimulation and the criterion of positive labellar stimulation was the spreading of the labellar lobes in an extended proboscis. This was observed to be the same in free as well as attached experimental flies. Newly emerged females showed similar response.</p><p>The frequency method generally employed in psycho-physical studies for estimating thresholds in mammals was successfully extended to tabanids. Using this method the stimulative effectiveness and threshold of various sugars for the tarsal and labellar taste sensilla was determined. Comparison was made between the frequency method and the ascending method of estimating thresholds with regard to sucrose. The effect of starvation on responsiveness of tarsal and labellar contact chemoreceptors was determined. Newly emerged flies became increasingly sensitive to sucrose during the duration of tests when they were strictly maintained on water diet. </p><p>Intergenerlc differences and similarities were seen in the behaviour immediately before feeding. The flies fed on "dry" sucrose as well as on solutions of appropriate concentrations. By analysing the crop contents of wild-caught tabanids, it was established that they fed on sugars and these findings were related to tabanid feeding behaviour and adaptation in nature.</p><p>Using whole blood, sugars and blood-sugar mixtures at various concentrations and proportions (in the case of blood-sugar mixtures), their dispatch to crop and/or mid-gut was studied. In addition, select group of amino acids and nucleotides were also tested to determine if these acted as feeding stimulants for the deer-flies.</p><p>Wild-caught females of deer-flies lived on dry sucrose and water and on 1.OH glucose solution longer than on distilled water alone or without food and water.</p> / Thesis / Doctor of Philosophy (PhD)

<p>Recent observations illustrate fruit fly larval attraction to the distinct odour emanating from food occupied by other larvae. Growing evidence of bacteria as influential microorganisms of hosts suggested the closer examination of host-microbial interactions. We investigated the origin of the volatiles that are attractive to flies. Focal larvae showed no difference in attraction to axenic used food with axenic larvae and axenic fresh food. Additionally, mated females showed no difference in attraction to axenic used food with axenic larvae and axenic fresh food. When we supplemented the axenic disks with <em>L. brevis</em>, larvae showed a significant preference for the axenic used food with axenic larvae and <em>L. brevis </em>over axenic fresh food. Also, the supplementation of <em>L. plantarum</em> to axenic disks also resulted in larvae showing a significant preference for the axenic used food with axenic larvae and <em>L. plantarum </em>over axenic fresh food. Focal larvae showed a significant preference for <em>L. brevis</em> on scratched MRS agar and axenic used food with axenic larvae, but did not show a significant preference for <em>L. brevis</em> on scratched axenic food. In a learning experiment, focal larvae showed no preference for novel odours previously paired with standard used food over novel odours previously paired with axenic used food. In order to test whether <em>L. brevis</em> improves food quality, the three fitness parameters observed, larval development rate, egg-to-adult survival, and adult body mass, revealed inexplicable findings. These results provide evidence for the role of bacterial volatiles in mediating the social attraction observed in fruit flies.</p> / Master of Science (MSc)

All animals face a complex environment full of obstacles that they must overcome in order to survive and reproduce. How an individual responds to its environment is essential to overcoming such obstacles in order to maximize fitness. In my thesis, I focused on the roles of persistence and aggression in achieving fitness-relevant goals. Persistence is continuing in a course of action in spite of difficulty or resistance, and aggression is any instance where an individual uses physical, and potentially damaging, force against a conspecific. I used fruit flies (Drosophila melanogaster) as a model system to examine the ways in which males use persistence and aggression to attain fitness-relevant goals such as defending resources, gaining access to females, and mating. I first examined how a male’s age affected his persistence in courting recently mated females, who are generally unreceptive, and found that older males were more persistent than younger males (Chapter 2). Next, I showed that males of different ages differed in their courtship persistence in the presence of a competitor, and that males were able to subtly, but directly, interfere with one another’s courtship attempts (Chapter 3). I then demonstrated how males were able to use aggression in a mate guarding context to reduce the likelihood that a competitor male mated with their recent mate (Chapter 4), and as a form of resource defense to defend a desirable food patch in the presence of a potential mate (Chapter 5). Finally, I considered male persistence in the pursuit of unreceptive females as a form of male sexual aggression towards recently mated and sexually immature females (Chapters 5 and 6). Overall, my thesis work demonstrates how complex, and sometimes intertwined, the roles of persistence, aggression, and sexual coercion can be even within a ‘simple’ model organism, such as the fruit fly. / Dissertation / Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) / All animals face obstacles from their environment that they must respond to in order to survive and reproduce. In this thesis, I focused on how males use aggressive and persistent behaviours to overcome environmental obstacles. Aggression is the use of physical force against another individual, and persistence is when an individual continues in a course of action despite difficulties. I used fruit flies as a model to examine how males fight with one another over access to food and potential mates. I also studied how males persistently harass females in order to mate with them. In many experiments, I found that males use a combination of aggressive and persistent behaviours to achieve a goal. Overall, my results show that even in a simple species like fruit flies, individuals can use complex combinations of behaviours to achieve a variety of goals.

1. Hypoderma lineatum and Hypoderma bovis are prevalent in Burkes Garden and Southwestern Virginia generally. 2. Young cattle, calves and yearlings particularly, are generally more heavily infested than older cattle. 3. Adults appear in Burkes Garden the first warm days in April though they are at their worst in June and July, a normal season. 4. Larvae ordinarily make their first appearance in the subcutaneous tissues of the back about the first of December. The first ones emerge and pupate about the middle of January. 5. At the time control was started H. lineatum exceeded H. bovis in the ratio of 65 to 35 percent. The ratio now is 55 to 45 percent. 6. Salt, wet or dry, is an ineffective dressing for killing Hypoderma larvae in the subcutaneous tissues of the host. 7. Benzol, 90 or 100 percent, injected into larval cysts effects a high percentage of kill. 8. Hand extraction at intervals of 30 days repeated five times is a practical and effective means of control. 9. Hand extraction performed by the average farm worker caused an occasional case of anaphylaxis, .037 percent 10. Cooperative control measures, to be effective, should be supervised closely. 11. Extraction of Hypoderma larvae from the subcutaneous tissues of the host effects gains in weight and milk flow advantageously. 12. Control measures as practiced in Burkes Garden has reduced Hypoderma infestation by approximately 50 percent. / M.S.

Naive observers are found to estimate numbers of dots on projected slides with a consistent factor of underestimation of ca. 0.75. There is an overall difference in response between males and females and between more experienced and less experienced observers. There is an apparent trade-off between accuracy and precision when significant differences in response are recorded. Training observers with slides of revealed value alone is equally effective as a combination of slides and a reference pamphlet: both produce improvements in accuracy and precision. A subjective visual index of house fly abundance is found to be more sensitive than Scudder grill counts, spot cards, sticky tape traps or square-foot panels to changes in house fly population densities. None of these methods is consistently the best correlated to the visual index, although the square-foot panels were most highly correlated most often. / Ph. D.

Doctor of Philosophy / Department of Entomology / Ludek Zurek / Enterococci are a group of commensal bacteria that are important nosocomial pathogens. They are abundant in human sewage and wastewater treatment facilities (WWTF). This study focused on the role of house flies, Musca domestica, in the ecology of enterococci at WWTF in both field and laboratory experiments. The first study objective focused on sampling and characterizing enterococci from house flies and wastewater sludge from four WWTF in northeastern Kansas. Enterococci were quantified, identified, and screened for antibiotic resistance and virulence traits, and genotyped. The profiles of enterococci (spp. diversity, antibiotic resistance and virulence) from WWTF sludge and the house flies were similar, indicating that the flies successfully acquired the bacteria from the WWTF substrate. Enterococci with the greatest amount of antibiotic resistant and virulence traits originated from the WWTF that processed meat waste from a commercial sausage plant. Genotyping of E. faecalis revealed clonal matches from sludge and house flies. The second study objective involved tracking the fate of E. faecalis in the digestive tract of house flies in laboratory assays. Colony forming unit (CFU) counts were highest in the midgut at 1 h and declined during the first 24 h. In the labellum, foregut and hindgut, E. faecalis concentrations were more variable but were overall higher after 24 h. Observations from CFU counts and visualizations under a dissecting microscope revealed that E. faecalis peaked in the crop after 48 h suggesting active proliferation in this region. The third objective of the study involved tracking the emergence of calyptrate muscoid flies from stockpiled biosolid cake at one of the four WWTF. Traps were employed at the site for a total of 47 weeks, totaling 386 trap-weeks. A total of 11,349 calyptrate muscoid flies were identified with the two most common species being stable flies (Stomoxys calcitrans) (9,016, 80.2%) and house flies (2022, 18.0%). Numbers of stable flies and house flies peaked around mid-July each year and a second, smaller peak was observed for stable flies 5-8 weeks later. Estimated annual emergence of stable flies was 551,404 and for house flies 109,188.

<p> This research was designed to gain a better understanding of the relationships between nutrition, aging and oogenesis. Cohorts of 1800 inbrod, adult house flies were maintained on various undefined and chemically defined diets. From these flies samples for histology were removed periodically, and the rest were analyzed for their survival and their ability to develop and lay viable eggs. The survival of the females was more affected by nutrition and other factors than that of the males. In females fed sugar water, oogenesis was arrested at an early stage, but survival was lower than on a milk diet. From adult emergence until the completion of one or more ovarian cycles, the larval and adult fatbodies and the ovary were compared as to their histology, histochemistry and cytology. / Thesis / Master of Science (MSc)