No description available.

A compressible Euler-Euler computational fluid dynamics (CFD) model for vapor, gas, and pseudo-cavitation in oil-hydraulic flows is presented. For vapor, the Zwart-Gerber-Belamri (ZGB) model is used and for gas cavitation, the Lifante model. The aim is to determine the empirical parameters within the cavitation models for hydraulic oil by comparing CFD results to experiments in a realistic valve. The cavitating flow is visualized and measured for numerous operating points. By degassing, states of pure vapor cavitation are generated. The major findings are: (1) large eddy simulation turbulence modeling is essential, (2) vapor cavitation in mineral oil can be simulated very well with the ZGB model using the determined parameter, and (3) gas cavitation model provides useful results although not all details can be reflected and its scope is limited.

No description available.

Diese Arbeit beinhaltet umfangreiche experimentelle Daten zur Kavitationsvisu-alisierung unter Trennung von Dampf- und Gaskavitation sowie eine validierte und praktikable Simulationsmethodik zur Lokalisierung und Quantifizierung der Kavitation und Kavitationserosion in einem realitätsnahen Hydraulikventil. Ein wesentliches Defizit der bisherigen Forschung zur Kavitation in der Hydrau-lik liegt in der fehlenden Trennung der Kavitationsarten, wodurch es bisher nur punktuell gelang belastbare Kavitationsmodelle inklusive ihrer Parameter für ölhydraulische Strömungen zu entwickeln. Auch die Vorhersage der Kavitati-onserosion war nur eingeschränkt möglich und der Einfluss der Luft auf diese umstritten. Durch ein effektives Entgasungskonzept trennt diese Arbeit experimentell die Effekte von Dampf- und Gaskavitation vollständig, sodass die jeweiligen Auswir-kungen auf die Kavitationsverteilung und -erosion sichtbar und analysierbar werden. Für 90 Betriebspunkte bei drei Sättigungszuständen des Mineralöls wird die kavitierende Strömung mit Hilfe einer Hochgeschwindigkeitskamera und der Methode der Shadowgraphy visualisiert und statistisch quantifiziert. Es wird gezeigt, dass die Verteilung der optischen Kavitationsintensität vollständig durch den Kavitationskoeffizienten beschrieben wird und dass der Kavitations-beginn unabhängig vom Sättigungszustand des Öls ist. Weiterhin wird nachge-wiesen, dass hydrodynamische Kavitationserosion durch Dampfkavitation und nicht durch Gaskavitation verursacht wird. Im Gegenteil, die durch Gaskavitation freige-setzte Luft dämpft die Kavitationserosion um den Faktor 4-5. Zur Simulation der Dampf- und Gaskavitation wird schrittweise ein kompressib-les Euler-Euler-Mehrphasen CFD-Modell aufgebaut und mit der entwickelten Me-thode der „Virtual Shadowgraphy“ ausgewertet. Die Visualisierungsdaten wer-den zur Parametrierung das Zwart-Gerber-Belamri Dampfkavitationsmodell für Hydrauliköl genutzt. Die Modellierung wird um den Einfluss der Luft erweitert. Der Vergleich zwischen Simulation und Experiment zeigt über den gesamten Betriebsbereich eine sehr gute Übereinstimmung der räumlichen Kavitations-verteilung. Es wird demonstriert, dass eine Turbulenzmodellierung mit LES notwendig ist, da diese das momentane und lokale Druckfeld aufgelöst und damit die druckge-triebene Kavitation korrekt berechnet. Mit Hilfe der Kavitationserosionsindizes nach Nohmi ermöglicht das Modell die detaillierte Lokalisierung und Quantifizierung der Kavitationserosion, wobei ei-ne starke Kopplung zwischen Wirbeln und Kavitation beobachtet wird. Der ero-sionsdämpfende Einfluss der Luft wird von der Simulation ebenfalls abgebildet. Das Modell ist einsatzbereit und ermöglicht die Simulation von Kavitation und Kavitationserosion in hydraulischen Pumpen und Ventilen.:1 Einleitung 2 Stand der Forschung 2.1 Übersicht zur Turbulenzmodellierung 2.1.1 Turbulenzmodellierung mittels RANS 2.1.2 Turbulenzmodellierung mittels LES 2.2 Grundlagen der Mehrphasen- und Kavitationsmodellierung 2.3 Modellierung der Dampfkavitation 2.4 Modellierung der Gaskavitation 2.5 Kavitationsmodellierung in der Hydraulik 2.6 Kavitationserosion und Einfluss der (gelösten) Luft im Hydrauliköl 2.7 Simulation der Kavitationserosion 2.8 Forschungslücke 3 Zielsetzung und Vorgehensweise 4 Das Fluid – Stoffwertbestimmung 4.1 Die Viskosität 4.2 Die Dichte 4.3 Der Kompressionsmodul 4.4 Der Dampfdruck 5 Experimente zur Kavitationsvisualisierung 5.1 Experimentelle Strategie 5.2 Versuchsaufbau 5.2.1 Das Hydrauliksystem 5.2.2 Der hydraulische Tank mit Entgasungsfunktionalität 5.2.3 Die Blasenanalysestrecken 5.2.4 Die Strömungsgeometrie 5.2.5 Strömungsvisualisierung mittels Shadowgraphy und Hochgeschwindigkeitskamera 5.3 Versuchsdurchführung 5.4 Versuchsauswertung und Ergebnisse 5.4.1 Definition der Ähnlichkeitskennzahlen Re,ζ,σ und X 5.4.2 Durchflusscharakteristik der Strömungsgeometrie 5.4.3 Bildverarbeitung und Quantifizierung der Kavitationsintensität mittels der statistischen Shadowgraphy 5.4.4 Räumliche Verteilung der Kavitationsintensität bei unterschiedlichen Sättigungsgraden und Betriebspunkten 5.4.5 Räumlich gemittelte Kavitationsintensität bei unterschiedlichen Sättigungsgraden und Betriebspunkten 6 Experimente zur Kavitationserosion und deren Abhängigkeit vom Luftgehalt 90 6.1 Durchführung der Erosionsversuche 6.2 Ergebnisse der Erosionsversuche 6.3 Messung der gelösten Luft und des Blasenspektrums im Nachlauf 6.4 Ergebnisinterpretation, Diskussion und Schlussfolgerungen der Erosionsversuche 7 Simulation 7.1 Simulationsstrategie 7.2 Geometrie und Diskretisierung 7.3 Modellaufbau und Auswertemethodik 7.3.1 Definition der Stoffeigenschaften 7.3.2 Turbulenzmodellierung 7.3.3 Kavitationsmodellierung 7.3.4 Rand- und Anfangsbedingungen 7.3.5 Die Auswertemethodik der „Virtual Shadowgraphy“ 7.4 Simulationsergebnisse und Vergleich mit den Experimenten 7.4.1 Einfluss der Turbulenzmodellierung 7.4.2 Parametrierung des ZGB-Dampfkavitationsmodells für Mineralöl 7.4.3 Parametrierung des Lifante-Gaskavitationsmodells für Mineralöl 7.4.4 Weiterentwicklung des Lifante-Gaskavitationsmodells durch scherratenabhängige Desorbtionskoeffizienten 7.4.5 Modellreduktion zur Anwendung bei kavitationsintensiven Betriebspunkten und dem Vorhandensein freier Luft 7.5 Simulative Quantifizierung von Ort und Intensität der Kavitationsbelastung und Einfluss der Luft 7.5.1 Einfluss der Luft auf die Kavitationsbelastung 7.5.2 Vergleich und Bewertung der simulierten Kavitationsbelastung mit der experimentell beobachteten Kavitationserosion 8 Zusammenfassung 9 Ausblick 10 Literatur 11 Anhang / This thesis contains detailed experimental data on cavitation visualization with separation of vapor and gas cavitation as well as a validated and practicable simulation methodology for the localization and quantification of cavitation and cavitation erosion in a realistic hydraulic valve. A major deficit of previous research on cavitation in hydraulics is the lack of separation of cavitation types, which has resulted in only selective success in developing reliable cavitation models including their parameters for oil-hydraulic flows. The prediction of cavitation erosion was also only possible to a limited extent and the influence of air on this was controversial. Using an effective degassing concept, this work experimentally separates the effects of vapor and gas cavitation completely, so that the individual effects on cavitation distribution and erosion become visible and analyzable. For 90 oper-ating points at three saturation states of the mineral oil, the cavitating flow is visualized and statistically quantified using a high-speed camera and the meth-od of shadowgraphy. It is shown that the distribution of the optical cavitation intensity is completely described by the cavitation coefficient and that the in-ception of cavitation is independent of the saturation state of the oil. Further-more, it is shown that hydrodynamic cavitation erosion is caused by vapor cavi-tation and not by gas cavitation. On the contrary, the air released by gas cavita-tion dampens cavitation erosion by a factor of 4-5. To simulate vapor and gas cavitation, a compressible Euler-Euler multiphase CFD model is developed step by step and evaluated using the 'Virtual Shadow-graphy' method. The visualization data is used to parameterize the Zwart-Gerber-Belamri vapor cavitation model for hydraulic oil. The modeling is ex-tended to include the influence of air. The comparison between simulation and experiment shows a very good agreement of the spatial cavitation distribution over the entire operating range. It is demonstrated that turbulence modeling with LES is necessary because it resolves the momentary and local pressure field and thus correctly calculates the pressure-driven cavitation. With the help of the cavitation erosion indices according to Nohmi, the model enables the detailed localization and quantification of cavitation erosion, whereby a strong coupling between vortices and cavitation is observed. The erosion-damping influence of the air is also reflected by the simulation. The model is ready for use and enables the simulation of cavitation and cavita-tion erosion in hydraulic pumps and valves.:1 Einleitung 2 Stand der Forschung 2.1 Übersicht zur Turbulenzmodellierung 2.1.1 Turbulenzmodellierung mittels RANS 2.1.2 Turbulenzmodellierung mittels LES 2.2 Grundlagen der Mehrphasen- und Kavitationsmodellierung 2.3 Modellierung der Dampfkavitation 2.4 Modellierung der Gaskavitation 2.5 Kavitationsmodellierung in der Hydraulik 2.6 Kavitationserosion und Einfluss der (gelösten) Luft im Hydrauliköl 2.7 Simulation der Kavitationserosion 2.8 Forschungslücke 3 Zielsetzung und Vorgehensweise 4 Das Fluid – Stoffwertbestimmung 4.1 Die Viskosität 4.2 Die Dichte 4.3 Der Kompressionsmodul 4.4 Der Dampfdruck 5 Experimente zur Kavitationsvisualisierung 5.1 Experimentelle Strategie 5.2 Versuchsaufbau 5.2.1 Das Hydrauliksystem 5.2.2 Der hydraulische Tank mit Entgasungsfunktionalität 5.2.3 Die Blasenanalysestrecken 5.2.4 Die Strömungsgeometrie 5.2.5 Strömungsvisualisierung mittels Shadowgraphy und Hochgeschwindigkeitskamera 5.3 Versuchsdurchführung 5.4 Versuchsauswertung und Ergebnisse 5.4.1 Definition der Ähnlichkeitskennzahlen Re,ζ,σ und X 5.4.2 Durchflusscharakteristik der Strömungsgeometrie 5.4.3 Bildverarbeitung und Quantifizierung der Kavitationsintensität mittels der statistischen Shadowgraphy 5.4.4 Räumliche Verteilung der Kavitationsintensität bei unterschiedlichen Sättigungsgraden und Betriebspunkten 5.4.5 Räumlich gemittelte Kavitationsintensität bei unterschiedlichen Sättigungsgraden und Betriebspunkten 6 Experimente zur Kavitationserosion und deren Abhängigkeit vom Luftgehalt 90 6.1 Durchführung der Erosionsversuche 6.2 Ergebnisse der Erosionsversuche 6.3 Messung der gelösten Luft und des Blasenspektrums im Nachlauf 6.4 Ergebnisinterpretation, Diskussion und Schlussfolgerungen der Erosionsversuche 7 Simulation 7.1 Simulationsstrategie 7.2 Geometrie und Diskretisierung 7.3 Modellaufbau und Auswertemethodik 7.3.1 Definition der Stoffeigenschaften 7.3.2 Turbulenzmodellierung 7.3.3 Kavitationsmodellierung 7.3.4 Rand- und Anfangsbedingungen 7.3.5 Die Auswertemethodik der „Virtual Shadowgraphy“ 7.4 Simulationsergebnisse und Vergleich mit den Experimenten 7.4.1 Einfluss der Turbulenzmodellierung 7.4.2 Parametrierung des ZGB-Dampfkavitationsmodells für Mineralöl 7.4.3 Parametrierung des Lifante-Gaskavitationsmodells für Mineralöl 7.4.4 Weiterentwicklung des Lifante-Gaskavitationsmodells durch scherratenabhängige Desorbtionskoeffizienten 7.4.5 Modellreduktion zur Anwendung bei kavitationsintensiven Betriebspunkten und dem Vorhandensein freier Luft 7.5 Simulative Quantifizierung von Ort und Intensität der Kavitationsbelastung und Einfluss der Luft 7.5.1 Einfluss der Luft auf die Kavitationsbelastung 7.5.2 Vergleich und Bewertung der simulierten Kavitationsbelastung mit der experimentell beobachteten Kavitationserosion 8 Zusammenfassung 9 Ausblick 10 Literatur 11 Anhang

The context of this thesis is the numerical simulation of turbulent flows at moderate Reynolds numbers and the improvement of the capabilities of an in-house 3D unsteady and incompressible flow solver called SFELES to simulate such flows. In addition to this abstract, this thesis includes five other chapters. The second chapter of this thesis presents the numerical methods implemented in the two CFD solvers used as part of this work, namely SFELES and PHASTA. The third chapter concentrates on the implementation of a new library called FlexMG. This library allows the use of various types of iterative solvers preconditioned by algebraic multigrid methods, which require much less memory to solve linear systems than a direct sparse LU solver available in SFELES. Multigrid is an iterative procedure that relies on a series of increasingly coarser approximations of the original 'fine' problem. The underlying concept is the following: low wavenumber errors on fine grids become high wavenumber errors on coarser levels, which can be effectively removed by applying fixed-point methods on coarser levels. Two families of algebraic multigrid preconditioners have been implemented in FlexMG, namely smooth aggregation-type and non-nested finite element-type. Unlike pure gridless multigrid, both of these families use the information contained in the initial fine mesh. A hierarchy of coarse meshes is also needed for the non-nested finite element-type multigrid so that our approaches can be considered as hybrid. Our aggregation-type multigrid is smoothed with either a constant or a linear least square fitting function, whereas the non-nested finite element-type multigrid is already smooth by construction. All these multigrid preconditioners are tested as stand-alone solvers or coupled with a GMRES (Generalized Minimal RESidual) method. After analyzing the accuracy of the solutions obtained with our solvers on a typical test case in fluid mechanics (unsteady flow past a circular cylinder at low Reynolds number), their performance in terms of convergence rate, computational speed and memory consumption is compared with the performance of a direct sparse LU solver as a reference. Finally, the importance of using smooth interpolation operators is also underlined in this work. The fourth chapter is devoted to the study of subgrid scale models for the large eddy simulation (LES) of turbulent flows. It is well known that turbulence features a cascade process by which kinetic energy is transferred from the large turbulent scales to the smaller ones. Below a certain size, the smallest structures are dissipated into heat because of the effect of the viscous term in the Navier-Stokes equations. In the classical formulation of LES models, all the resolved scales are used to model the contribution of the unresolved scales. However, most of the energy exchanges between scales are local, which means that the energy of the unresolved scales derives mainly from the energy of the small resolved scales. In this fourth chapter, constant-coefficient-based Smagorinsky and WALE models are considered under different formulations. This includes a classical version of both the Smagorinsky and WALE models and several scale-separation formulations, where the resolved velocity field is filtered in order to separate the small turbulent scales from the large ones. From this separation of turbulent scales, the strain rate tensor and/or the eddy viscosity of the subgrid scale model is computed from the small resolved scales only. One important advantage of these scale-separation models is that the dissipation they introduce through their subgrid scale stress tensor is better controlled compared to their classical version, where all the scales are taken into account without any filtering. More precisely, the filtering operator (based on a top hat filter in this work) allows the decomposition u' = u - ubar, where u is the resolved velocity field (large and small resolved scales), ubar is the filtered velocity field (large resolved scales) and u' is the small resolved scales field. At last, two variational multiscale (VMS) methods are also considered. The philosophy of the variational multiscale methods differs significantly from the philosophy of the scale-separation models. Concretely, the discrete Navier-Stokes equations have to be projected into two disjoint spaces so that a set of equations characterizes the evolution of the large resolved scales of the flow, whereas another set governs the small resolved scales. Once the Navier-Stokes equations have been projected into these two spaces associated with the large and small scales respectively, the variational multiscale method consists in adding an eddy viscosity model to the small scales equations only, leaving the large scales equations unchanged. This projection is obvious in the case of a full spectral discretization of the Navier-Stokes equations, where the evolution of the large and small scales is governed by the equations associated with the low and high wavenumber modes respectively. This projection is more complex to achieve in the context of a finite element discretization. For that purpose, two variational multiscale concepts are examined in this work. The first projector is based on the construction of aggregates, whereas the second projector relies on the implementation of hierarchical linear basis functions. In order to gain some experience in the field of LES modeling, some of the above-mentioned models were implemented first in another code called PHASTA and presented along with SFELES in the second chapter. Finally, the relevance of our models is assessed with the large eddy simulation of a fully developed turbulent channel flow at a low Reynolds number under statistical equilibrium. In addition to the analysis of the mean eddy viscosity computed for all our LES models, comparisons in terms of shear stress, root mean square velocity fluctuation and mean velocity are performed with a fully resolved direct numerical simulation as a reference. The fifth chapter of the thesis focuses on the numerical simulation of the 3D turbulent flow over a re-entry Apollo-type capsule at low speed with SFELES. The Reynolds number based on the heat shield is set to Re=10^4 and the angle of attack is set to 180º, that is the heat shield facing the free stream. Only the final stage of the flight is considered in this work, before the splashdown or the landing, so that the incompressibility hypothesis in SFELES is still valid. Two LES models are considered in this chapter, namely a classical and a scale-separation version of the WALE model. Although the capsule geometry is axisymmetric, the flow field in its wake is not and induces unsteady forces and moments acting on the capsule. The characterization of the phenomena occurring in the wake of the capsule and the determination of their main frequencies are essential to ensure the static and dynamic stability during the final stage of the flight. Visualizations by means of 3D isosurfaces and 2D slices of the Q-criterion and the vorticity field confirm the presence of a large meandering recirculation zone characterized by a low Strouhal number, that is St≈0.15. Due to the detachment of the flow at the shoulder of the capsule, a resulting annular shear layer appears. This shear layer is then affected by some Kelvin-Helmholtz instabilities and ends up rolling up, leading to the formation of vortex rings characterized by a high frequency. This vortex shedding depends on the Reynolds number so that a Strouhal number St≈3 is detected at Re=10^4. Finally, the analysis of the force and moment coefficients reveals the existence of a lateral force perpendicular to the streamwise direction in the case of the scale-separation WALE model, which suggests that the wake of the capsule may have some preferential orientations during the vortex shedding. In the case of the classical version of the WALE model, no lateral force has been observed so far so that the mean flow is thought to be still axisymmetric after 100 units of non-dimensional physical time. Finally, the last chapter of this work recalls the main conclusions drawn from the previous chapters.

The present thesis is an experimental study of some aspects of unsteady two dimensional boundary layers subject to adverse pressure gradient. An adverse pressure gradient usually leads to boundary layer separation or an instability which may result in transition to turbulence. Unsteady boundary layer separation is not yet fully understood and there is no specific criterion proposed in literature for its occurrence. The details of separation depend on the Reynolds number, the geometry of the body (streamlined or bluff) and the type of imposed unsteady motion (impulsive, oscillatory etc.). Similarly there are many unknowns with respect to instability and transition in unsteady boundary layers, especially those having a streamwise variation. For unsteady flows it is useful to break up the pressure gradient term in the unsteady boundary layer equation into two components:(Formula) is the velocity at the edge of the boundary layer. The first term of the right hand side of this equation may be called the temporal component (Πt) which signifies acceleration or deceleration in time of the free stream and the second term is the spatial component (Πx) which represents the spatial or convective acceleration of the free stream. Many of the studies on instability in unsteady flows found in literature are carried out in straight tubes or channels, where the Πx term is absent. However, in many cases, especially in biological systems both terms are present. An example is the unsteady flow over the moving body of a fish. To study the effects of Πt and Πx on unsteady separation and instability we have built an unsteady water tunnel where the two components can be systematically varied. The flow is created by a controlled motion of a piston. By a suitable combination of the geometry of the model and the piston motion, different types of separation bubbles may be generated. In our studies the piston motion follows a trapezoidal variation: constant acceleration from rest, followed by constant velocity and then deceleration to zero velocity. We have chosen two geometries. One is a bluff body and thus has a high value of Πx and other is a small angle diffuser with a divergence angle 6.2° and thus having a small value of Πx. Upstream and downstream of the diffuser are long lengths of constant cross section. We have performed experiments with the above mentioned geometries placed in the tunnel test section. Flow is visualized using the laser induced fluorescence technique by injecting a thin layer of fluorescein dye on the test wall. Numerical simulations have been done using the software FLUENT. Boundary layer parameters like boundary layer, displacement and momentum thicknesses are calculated from the simulations and used to analyze the experimental results. For the flow in the diffuser, quasi-steady stability analysis of the instantaneous velocity profiles gives a general idea of stability behavior of the flow. Two types of experiments have been done with the bluff body. One is the unsteady boundary layer separation and the formation of the initial vortex for a flow that is uniformly accelerated from rest. We have found some scalings for the formation time (tv) of the separation vortex. The second type of experiment was to study the vortex shedding from the separating shear layer after the boundary layer has fully separated. At high enough Reynolds number shear layer vortices are seen to shed from the separation bubble. The Strouhal number based on the momentum thickness and the velocity at the edge of the boundary layer just upstream of the separation point is found to vary between 0.004 and 0.008. This value is close to the Strouhal number value of 0.0068 found in laminar separation bubbles on a flat plate. The second part of the study concerns with the evolution of the flow in the small angle diffuser with a mild variation of the spatial component of the pressure gradient. From the experimental visualizations we have found that the ratio of Πx and Πt at the start of the deceleration phase of the piston motion is an important parameter that determines the type of instability. This value of Πx/Πt is controlled by controlling the piston deceleration: a large deceleration gives a low Πx/Πt value and a low deceleration gives a large Πx/Πt value. Three types of instabilities have been observed in our experiments. In Type I, the first vortex forms at the maximum pressure gradient point (MPGP) and which grows disproportionately with time. However, instability vortices are seen later at other locations around the MPGP. In type II an array of vortices over a certain length are observed; the vortices grow with time. In Type III, which we observe for low decelerations, we observe initial vortices only in the diffuser section in the deceleration phase of the piston motion. Type III instability is similar to the one observed in dynamic stall experiments. In all cases the instability is very localized - it occurs only over some length of the boundary layer. Transition to turbulence, which is also localized, is observed at higher Reynolds numbers. The non-dimensional time for vortex formation is not very different from that found in straight channel experiments. Quasi-steady linear stability analyses for the boundary layer at the MPGP both for the top and the bottom walls show that the flow is absolutely unstable for some cases. In summary, the thesis looks at in a unified way the separation and instability of unsteady boundary layers with reverse flow. It is hoped that the results will be useful in predicting and understanding onset of separation and instability in practically occurring unsteady flows.

Knowledge of flow separation is very essential for proper understanding of both external and internal aerothermodynamics of bodies. Because of unique flow features such as thick boundary layers, merged shock layers, strong entropy layers, flow separation in the flow field of bodies at hypersonic speeds, is both complex as well as interesting. The problem of flow separation is further complicated at very high stagnation enthalpies because of the real gas effects. Notwithstanding the plethora of information available in open literature even for simple geometric configurations the experimentally determined locations of flow separation and re-attachment points do not match well with the results from the computational studies even at hypersonic laminar flow conditions. In this backdrop the main aim of the present study is to generate a reliable experimental database of classical separated flow features around generic configurations at hypersonic laminar flow conditions. In the present study, flow visualization using high speed camera, surface convective heat transfer rate measurements using platinum thin film sensors, and direct skin friction measurements using PZT crystals have been carried out for characterizing the separated flow field around backward facing step, double cone and double wedge models. The numerical simulations by solving the Navier-Stokes equations have also been carried out to complement the experimental studies. The generic models selected in the present study are simple configurations, where most of the classical hypersonic separated flow features of two-dimensional, axi-symmetric and three dimensional flow fields can be observed. All the experiments are carried out in IISc hypersonic shock tunnel (HST2) at Mach 5.75 and 7.6. For present study, helium and air have been used as the driver and test gases respectively. The high speed schlieren flow visualization is carried out on backward facing step (2 and 3 mm step height), double cone (semi-apex angles of 150/350 and 250/680) and double wedge (semi-apex angles of 150/350) models by using high speed camera (Phantom 7.1). From the visualized shockwave structure in the flow field the flow reattachment point after separation has been clearly identified for backward facing step, double cone and double wedge models at hypersonic Mach numbers while the separation point could not be clearly identified because of the low free stream density in shock tunnels. However the flow visualization studies helped clearly identifying the region of flow separation on the model. Based on the results from the flow visualization studies both the physical location and distribution of platinum thin film gauges was finalized for the heat transfer rate measurements. Surface heat transfer rates along the length of two backward facing step (2 and 3 mm step height) models have been measured using platinum thin film gauges deposited on Macor substrate. The Eckert reference temperature method is used along the flat plate for predicting the heat flux distribution. Theoretical analysis of heat flux distribution down stream of the backward facing step model has been carried out using Gai’s dimensional analysis. The study reveals for the first time that at moderate stagnation enthalpy levels (~2 MJ/kg) the hypersonic separated flow around a backward facing step reattaches rather smoothly without any sudden spikes in the measured values of surface heat transfer rates. Based on the measured surface heating rates on the backward facing step, the reattachment distance was estimated to be approximately 10 and 8 step heights downstream of 2 and 3 mm step respectively at nominal Mach number of 7.6. Convective surface heat transfer experiments have also been carried out on axi-symmetric double cone models (semi-apex angles of 15/35 and 25/68), which is analogous to the Edney’s shock interactions of Type VI and Type IV respectively. The flow is unsteady on the double cone model of 25/68 and measured heat flux is not constant. The heat transfer experiments were also carried out on the three-dimensional double wedge model (semi-apex angles of 15/35). The separation and reattachment points have been clearly identified from the experimental heat transfer measurements. It has been observed that the measured heat transfer rates on the double wedge model is less than the double cone model (semi-apex angles of 150/350) for the identical experimental conditions at the same gauge locations. This difference could be due to the three-dimensional entropy relieving effects of double wedge model. PZT-5H piezoelectric based skin friction gauge is developed and used for direct skin friction measurements in hypersonic shock tunnel (HST2). The bare piezoelectric PZT-5H elements (5 mm × 5 mm with thickness of 0.75 mm) polarized in the shear mode have been used as a skin friction gauge by operating the sensor in the parallel shear mode direction. The natural frequency of the skin friction sensor is ~80 kHz, which is suitable for impulse facilities. The direct skin friction measurements are carried out on flat plate, backward facing step (2 mm step height) and double wedge models. The measured value of skin friction coefficient (integrated over an area of 25 sq. mm; sensor surface area) at a distance of 23 mm from the leading edge of the sharp leading edge backward facing step model is found to be ~ 0.0043 while it decreases to ~ 0.003 at a distance of 43 mm from the leading edge at a stagnation enthalpy of ~ 2MJ/kg. The measured skin friction matches with the Eckert reference temperature within ± 10%. The skin friction coefficient is also measured on the double wedge at a distance of 73 mm from the tip of the first wedge along the surface and is found to be 4.56 × 10-3. Viscous flow numerical simulations are carried out on two-dimensional backward facing step, axi-symmetric double cone and three-dimensional double wedge models using ANSYS-CFX 5.7 package. Navier-Stokes Simulations are carried out at Mach 5.75 and 7.6 using second order accurate (both in time and space) high resolution scheme. The flow is assumed to be laminar and steady throughout the model length except on the double cone (semi-apex angles of 250/680) model configuration, which represents the unsteady flow geometry. Analogous Edney Type VI and Type IV shock interactions are observed on double cone, double wedge (semi-apex angles of 150/350) and double cone (semi-apex angles of 250/680) models respectively from the CFD results. Experimentally measured convective heat transfer rates on the above models are compared with the numerical simulation results. The numerical simulation results matches well with the experimental heat transfer data in the attached flow regions. Considerable differences are observed between the measured surface heat transfer rates and numerical simulations both in the separated flow region and on the second cone/wedge surfaces. The separation and reattachment points can be clearly identified from both experimental measurements and numerical simulations. The results from the numerical simulations are also compared with results from the high speed flow visualization experiments. The experimental database of surface convective heating rates, direct skin friction coefficient and shockwave structure in laminar hypersonic flow conditions will be very useful for validating CFD codes

Hypersonic vehicles are exposed to severe heating loads during their flight in the atmosphere. In order to minimize the heating problem, a variety of cooling techniques are presently available for hypersonic blunt bodies. Introduction of a forward-facing cavity in the nose tip of a blunt body configuration of hypersonic vehicle is one of the most simple and attractive methods of reducing the convective heating rates on such a vehicle. In addition to aerodynamic heating, the overall drag force experienced by vehicles flying at hypersonic speeds is predominate due to formation of strong shock waves in the flow. Hence, the effective management of heat transfer rate and aerodynamic drag is a primary element to the success of any hypersonic vehicle design. So, precise information on both aerodynamic forces and heat transfer rates are essential in deciding the performance of the vehicle. In order to address the issue of both forces and heat transfer rates, right kind of measurement techniques must be incorporated in the ground-based testing facilities for such type of body configurations. Impulse facilities are the only devices that can simulate high altitude flight conditions. Uncertainties in test flow conditions of impulse facilities are some of the critical issues that essentially affect the final experimental results. Hence, more reliable and carefully designed experimental techniques/methodologies are needed in impulse facilities for generating experimental data, especially at hypersonic Mach numbers. In view of the above, an experimental program has been initiated to develop novel techniques of measuring both the aerodynamic forces and surface heat transfer rates. In the present investigation, both aerodynamic forces and surface heat transfer rates are measured over the test models at hypersonic Mach numbers in IISc hypersonic shock tunnel HST-2, having an effective test time of 800 s. The aerodynamic coefficients are measured with a miniature type accelerometer based balance system where as platinum thin film sensors are used to measure the convective heat transfer rates over the surface of the test model. An internally mountable accelerometer based balance system (three and six-component) is used for the measurement of aerodynamic forces and moment coefficients acting on the different test models (i.e., blunt cone with after body, blunt cone with after body and frustum, blunt cone with after body-frustum-triangular fins and sharp cone with after body-frustum-triangular fins), flying at free stream Mach numbers of 5.75 and 8 in hypersonic shock tunnel. The main principle of this design is that the model along with the internally mounted accelerometer balance system are supported by rubber bushes and there-by ensuring unrestrained free floating conditions of the model in the test section during the flow duration. In order to get a better performance from the accelerometer balance system, the location of accelerometers plays a vital role during the initial design of the balance. Hence, axi-symmetric finite element modeling (FEM) of the integrated model-balance system for the missile shaped model has been carried out at 0° angle of attack in a flow Mach number of 8. The drag force of a model was determined using commercial package of MSC/NASTRAN and MSC/PATRAN. For test flow duration of 800 s, the neoprene type rubber with Young’s modulus of 3 MPa and material combinations (aluminum and stainless steel material used as the model and balance) were chosen. The simulated drag acceleration (finite element) from the drag accelerometer is compared with recorded acceleration-time history from the accelerometer during the shock tunnel testing. The agreement between the acceleration-time history from finite-element simulation and measured response from the accelerometer is very good within the test flow domain. In order to verify the performance of the balance, tests were carried out on similar standard AGARD model configurations (blunt cone with cylinder and blunt cone with cylinder-frustum) and the results indicated that the measured values match very well with the AGARD model data and theoretically estimated values. Modified Newtonian theory is used to calculate the aerodynamic force coefficient analytically for various angles of attack. Convective surface heat transfer rate measurements are carried out by using vacuum sputtered platinum thin film sensors deposited on ceramic substrate (Macor) inserts which in turn are embedded on the metallic missile shaped body. Investigations are carried out on a model with and without fin configurations in HST-2 at flow Mach number of 5.75 and 8 with a stagnation enthalpy of 2 MJ/kg for zero degree angle of attack. The measured heating rates for the missile shaped body (i.e., with fin configuration) are lower than the predicted stagnation heating rates (Fay-Riddell expression) and the maximum difference is about 8%. These differences may be due to the theoretical values of velocity gradient used in the empirical relation. The experimentally measured values are expressed in terms of normalized heat transfer rates, Stanton numbers and correlated Stanton numbers, compared with the numerically estimated results. From the results, it is inferred that the location of maximum heating occurs at stagnation point which corresponds to zero velocity gradient. The heat-transfer ratio (q1/Qo)remains same in the stagnation zone of the model when the Mach number is increased from 5.75 to 8. At the corners of the blunt cone, the heat transfer rate doesn’t increase (or) fluctuate and the effects are negligible at two different Mach numbers (5.75 and 8). On the basis of equivalent total enthalpy, the heat-transfer rate with fin configuration (i.e., at junction of cylinder and fins) is slightly higher than that of the missile model without fin. Attempts have also been made to evaluate the feasibility of using forward facing cavity as probable technique to reduce the heat transfer rate and to study its effect on aerodynamic coefficients on a 41° apex angle missile shaped body, in hypersonic shock tunnel at a free stream Mach number of 8. The forward-facing circular cavities with two different diameters of 6 and 12 mm are chosen for the present investigations. Experiments are carried out at zero degree angle of attack for heat transfer measurements. About 10-25 % reduction in heat transfer rates is observed with cavity at gauge locations close to stagnation region, whereas the reduction in surface heat transfer rate is between 10-15 % for all other gauge locations (which is slightly downstream of the cavity) compared with the model without cavity. In order to understand the influence of forward facing cavities on force coefficients, measurement of aerodynamic forces and moment coefficients are also carried out on a missile shaped body at angles of attack. The same six component balance is also being used for subsequent investigation of force measurement on a missile shaped body with forward facing cavity. Overall drag reductions of up to 5 % is obtained for a cavity of 6 mm diameter, where as, for the 12 mm cavity an increase in aerodynamic drag is observed (up to about 10%). The addition of cavity resulted in a slight increase in the missile L/D ratio and did not significantly affect the missile lateral components. In summary, the designed balances are found to be suitable for force measurements on different test models in flows of duration less than a millisecond. In order to compliment the experimental results, axi-symmetric, Navier-Stokes CFD computations for the above-defined models are carried out for various angles of attack using a commercial package CFX-Ansys 5.7. The experimental free stream conditions obtained from the shock tunnel are used for the boundary conditions in the CFD simulation. The fundamental aerodynamic coefficients and heat transfer rates of experimental results are shown to be in good agreement with the predicted CFD. In order to have a feeling of the shock structure over test models, flow visualization experiments have been carried out by using the Schlieren technique at flow Mach numbers of 5.75 and 8. The visualized shock wave pattern around the test model consists of a strong bow shock which is spherical in shape and symmetrical over the forebody of the cone. Experimentally measured shock stand-off distance compare well with the computed value as well as the theoretically estimated value using Van Dyke’s theory. These flow visualization experiments have given a factual proof to the quality of flow in the tunnel test section.

Shock wave-boundary layer interactions (SWBLIs) have been studied ex-tensively due to their practical importance in the design of high speed ve-hicles. These interactions, especially the ones leading to shock induced separation are typically unsteady in nature and can lead to large fluctuating pressure and thermal loads on the structure. The resulting shock oscil-lations are generally composed of high-frequency small-scale oscillations and low-frequency large-scale oscillations, the source of the later being a subject of intense recent debate. Motivated by these debates, we study in the present work, the SWBLI at a compression ramp and on a forward-facing step (FFS) at a Mach number of 2.5. In the case of compression ramps, a few ramp angles are studied ranging from small (10 degree) ramp angle to relatively large values of up to 28 degrees. The FFS configuration, which consists of a 90 degree step of height h, may be thought of as an extreme case of the compression ramp geometry, with the main geometri-cal parameter here being (h/δ), where δis the thickness of the oncoming boundary layer. This configuration is less studied and has some inherent advantages for experimentally studying SWBLI as the size of the separa-tion bubble is large. In the present experimental study, we use high-speed schlieren, unsteady wall pressure measurements, surface oil flow visualiza-tion, and detailed particle image velocimetry (PIV) measurements in two orthogonal planes to help understand the features of SWBLI in the com-pression ramp geometry and the forward-facing step case. The SWBLI at a compression ramp has been more widely studied, and our measurements show the general features that have been seen in earlier studies. The upstream boundary layer is found to separate close to the ramp corner forming a separation bubble. The streamwise length of the separa-tion bubble is found to increase with the ramp angle, with a consequent shift of the shock foot further upstream. At very small ramp angles up to 10 degrees, there is no evidence of separation, while at large ramp angles of 28 degrees, the separation bubble extends upstream to about 3.5δ(δ=boundary layer thickness). In all cases, the separation bubble is however very small in the wall normal direction, typically known to be about 0.1δ, and hence is difficult to directly measure in experiments using PIV. Shock foot measurements using PIV show that the shock has a spanwise ripple, which seems directly related to the high-and low-speed streaks in the in-coming boundary layer as recently shown by Ganapathisubramani et al. (2007). The forward-facing step configuration may be thought of as an extreme case of the compression ramp geometry, with a ramp angle of 90 degrees. This configuration has not been extensively studied, and is experimentally convenient due to the large separation bubbles formed ahead of the step. In the present work, extensive measurements of the mean and unsteady flow around this configuration have been done, especially for the case of h/δ=2, where his the step height. Pressure measurements in this case, show clear low-frequency motions of the shock at non-dimensional frequencies of about fh/U∞≈ 0.02. In this case, PIV measurements show the pres-ence of a large mean separation bubble extending to about 4hupstream and about 1hvertically. Instantaneous PIV measurements have been done in both cross-stream (streamwise and wall-normal plane) and in the span-wise (streamwise-spanwise) plane. Instantaneous cross-stream PIV mea-surements show significant variations of the shock location and angle, be-sides large variations in the recirculation region (or separation bubble), this being determined as the area having streamwise velocities less than zero. From a large set of individual PIV instantaneous fields, we can estimate the correlation of the measured shock location to both downstream effects like the area of the recirculation region, and upstream effects like the presence of high-/low-speed streaks in the oncoming boundary layer. We find that the shock location measured from data outside the boundary layer is more highly correlated to downstream effects as measured through the recircu-lation area compared to upstream effects in the boundary layer. However, we find that the shock foot within the boundary layer has ripples in the spanwise direction which are well correlated to the presence of high-/low-speed streaks in the incoming boundary layer. These spanwise ripples are however found to be small (less than one h) compared to the highly three-dimensional shape of the recirculation region with spanwise variation of the order of 3 step heights. In summary, the study shows that the separated region ahead of the step is highly three-dimensional. The shock foot within the boundary layer is found to have ripples that are well correlated to fluctuations in the in-coming boundary layer. However, we find that the large-scale nearly two-dimensional shock motions outside the boundary layer are not well cor-related to the fluctuations in the boundary layer, but are instead well cor-related with the spanwise-averaged separation bubble extent. Hence, the present results suggest that for the forward-facing step configuration, it is the downstream effect caused by the separation bubble that leads to the observed low-frequency shock motions.

A supersonic ejector is used to pump a secondary gas using a supersonic primary gas flow by augmentation of momentum and energy in a variable area duct. The internal compressible flow through an ejector has many complex gas dynamic features, like compressible shear layers and associated shock interactions. In many practical applications, ejectors are operated in the choked flow regimes where higher operating pressure ratios and mass flow rates are encountered. On the other hand, rather low entrainment and subsonic secondary flow dynamics (referred as the mixed regime of operation) dominate the dilution and purging applications of ejectors. The fundamental understanding of the flow dynamics associated with gaseous mixing process in the ejector especially in the mixed operational regime is still unclear. Obtaining a comprehensive understanding of the flow through a supersonic ejector in the mixed regime through experimental investigations is the prime focus of the present study. A new supersonic ejector test facility is designed, fabricated and established in the laboratory during the course of this study. The effects of using different gases in the secondary flow have been investigated. Two novel methods to improve the ejector by enhancing mixing are also implemented. Optical diagnostic tools (Time-resolved Schlieren and laser scattering) and wall static pressure measurements are used to investigate the dynamics of mixing process inside the ejector. State of the art image processing codes are developed to determine the length in the ejector for which the primary and the secondary flows are separate, referred here as the non-mixed length from the results of the flow visualization studies. Exhaustive experiments are carried out on the two dimensional rectangular supersonic ejector by varying the mass flow rates of primary and secondary flows, primary stagnation pressure, for two locations of the nozzle in the ejector. The non-mixed length determined from quantitative flow visualization tools is found to lie within 4.5 to 5.2 times the height of the duct (20 mm). The non-mixed flow length determined from flow visualization studies corroborates well with the wall static pressure measurements. A significant reduction of non-mixed length of about 46.7% is caused by shock wave-boundary layer interactions in the supersonic nozzle at over-expanded conditions. Further, the effects of differences in molecular weight and ratio of specific heats on the performance are also studied using cylindrical supersonic ejector at low entrainment ratios (0.008 to 0.06). In these studies air is used as the primary fluid while argon and helium are used in the secondary flow segment of the ejector. The results indicate that Argon has better entrainment characteristics compared to helium. Two novel supersonic nozzles (the tip rig nozzle and Elliptic Sharp Tipped Shallow lobed nozzle) are also devel- oped to enhance mixing in the ejector. About 30% enhancement of entrainment ratio is observed with the newly designed nozzle geometries. Illustrative numerical simulations are also carried out to complement the experimental studies.