Ο αυξητικός παράγοντας πλειοτροπίνη (Pleiotrophin, PTN) έχει μοριακή μάζα 18 kDa και ανήκει σε μια διακριτή οικογένεια αυξητικών παραγόντων που δεσμεύονται στην ηπαρίνη και σχετίζονται με αγγειογένεση και καρκινική ανάπτυξη. Στην παρούσα εργασία, μελετήσαμε τη συμμετοχή των ενδοκυτταρικών κινασών FAK και ILK στην επαγόμενη από PTN κυτταρική μετανάστευση σε ανθρώπινα ενδοθηλιακά κύτταρα από φλέβα ομφάλιου λώρου (HUVEC). Εξωγενής χορήγηση ΡΤΝ επάγει τη φωσφορυλίωση της κινάσης FAK στις τυροσίνες 397 και 925, ενώ μειώνει τη φωσφορυλίωση της κινάσης FAK στη τυροσίνη 576. Η κινάση ILK φαίνεται να εμπλέκεται στη διεγερτική δράση της PTN στη μετανάστευση των κυττάρων HUVEC, αφού μείωση της έκφρασης της κινάσης ILK με παρεμβαλλόμενο RNA στα κύτταρα HUVEC, οδήγησε σε αναστολή της επαγόμενης από ΡΤΝ κυτταρικής μετανάστευσης. Επιπλέον, διέγερση των κυττάρων HUVEC με PTN είχε ως αποτέλεσμα την επαγωγή της ενεργοποίησης της κινάσης ILK. Με σκοπό να διερευνηθεί η θέση της κινάσης ILK στο μονοπάτι μεταγωγής σήματος που ενεργοποιείται από τη PTN στα κύτταρα HUVEC, μελετήσαμε την πιθανή αλληλεπίδραση της ILK με μόρια που είναι γνωστό ότι συμμετέχουν σε αυτό το μονοπάτι. Παρατηρήθηκε ότι η κινάση ILK αλληλεπιδρά σε μεγάλο βαθμό με την κινάση FAK, ενώ μικρού βαθμού αλληλεπίδραση φαίνεται και με τις ιντεγκρίνη β3 και κινάση c-Src. Ενδιαφέρον παρουσιάζει το γεγονός ότι η διέγερση με PTN των κυττάρων HUVEC αυξάνει την αλληλεπίδραση μεταξύ των κινασών FAK και ILK. Τέλος, με δεδομένο ότι η β-κατενίνης εμπλέκεται στη κυτταρική μετανάστευση, ερευνήσαμε κατά πόσο η PTN και η κινάση ILK εμπλέκονται στο σηματοδοτικό μονοπάτι της β-κατενίνης στα κύτταρα HUVEC. Η ΡΤΝ αυξάνει με δοσο-εξαρτώμενο και χρονο-εξαρτώμενο τρόπο τη φωσφορυλίωση της β-κατενίνης σε κύτταρα HUVEC, φαινόμενο που αναστέλλεται μετά τη μείωση της έκφρασης της κινάσης ILK με siRNA. Συμπερασματικά, στην παρούσα εργασία καταδεικνύεται ότι η ΡΤΝ έχει διαφορική δράση στη φωσφορυλίωση τυροσινών της κινάσης FAK διαφορετικών θέσεων και ότι η κινάση ILK συμμετέχει στη διεγερτική δράση της PTN στη μετανάστευση των κυττάρων. / Pleiotrophin (PTN) is an 18 kDa secreted growth factor that displays high affinity for heparin. A growing body of evidence indicates that PTN is involved in cell proliferation, migration and differentiation. In the present work, we studied the possible role of two intracellular kinases, focal adhesion kinase (FAK) and integrin-linked kinase (ILK), in the PTN-induced migration of human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVEC). Exogenous administration of PTN significantly increased the phosphorylation of FAK kinase in tyrosines 397 and 925 and decreased phosphorylation in tyrosine 576. ILK seems to be involved in PTN-induced migration of HUVEC, since suppression of the ILK kinase using small interfering RNA (siRNA) abolished the stimulatory effect of PTN in migration of HUVEC. In addition, stimulation of HUVEC with PTN increased the ILK kinase activity. In order to determine which other signaling mediators are involved in the PTN signaling pathway, we studied the interaction of ILK with other proteins that have been implicated in the PTN-induced signal transduction. ILK strongly interacted with FAK kinase and to a lesser extent with c-src kinase and integrin ανβ3. Interestingly, PTN increased the degree of interaction between ILK and FAK kinases. Finally, it has been well described that β-catenin is involved in cell migration and that PTN increases β-catenin phosphorylation. We therefore investigated whether PTN affects β-catenin phosphorylation in HUVEC through activation of ILK kinase. PTN significantly increased phosphorylation of β-catenin in a concentration and time dependent manner, which seemed to be abolished after suppression of the ILK kinase using siRNA. Collectively, these results suggest a role of FAK and ILK kinases in the PTN-related signaling cascade which leads to cell migration both human endothelial cells.

Thesis (Ph. D.)--Biomedical Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, 2007. / Radhakrishna, Harish, Committee Member ; Zhu, Cheng, Committee Member ; LaPlaca, Michelle C., Committee Member ; Garca, Andrs J., Committee Chair ; Kowalczyk, Andrew P., Committee Member.

The ability to adhere to the extracellular matrix (ECM) is critical for numerous cell types and tissues including epithelia and muscle. Cell-ECM adhesion is primarily mediated by integrins which provide a direct link between the ECM and the actin cytoskeleton. Integrin adhesions are frequently associated with a core of 60 different proteins (integrin-associated proteins, IAPs). Integrins are required for muscle attachment and in Drosophila, loss of integrins and several IAPs results in embryonic lethality and muscle detachment. However, the IAPs FAK, RSU1, tensin, vinculin and zyxin are not required for viability or embryonic muscle attachment. Furthermore, FAK, RSU1, tensin and vinculin have been observed to localise to muscle attachment sites in Drosophila, indicating that they have some function in muscle attachment. Unlike FAK, RSU1, tensin and vinculin, it was not previously known whether zyxin is expressed in Drosophila muscles. To test this, I generated a genomic zyxin-GFP construct that should contain most of the endogenous zyxin promotor. The genomic zyxin-GFP construct was not observed at muscle attachment sites, suggesting that it is not normally expressed in muscle. I wished to know whether FAK, RSU1, tensin and vinculin are required for muscle function. Various behavioural assays were employed to test for muscle function in larvae and adult flies. The results suggest that larval muscle function was normal in flies lacking these IAPs, but that adult muscle function might be impaired, although it proved difficult to demonstrate a clear functional defect. I then tested whether the IAPs FAK, RSU1, tensin and vinculin are required for normal morphology of adult muscles, focusing on the adult indirect flight muscles (IFMs). The IFMs are fibrillar muscles which attach to the cuticle via specialised epithelial cells known as tendon cells. At the end of the myofibril, where the myofibril attaches to the tendon cell, is a dense region of actin and IAPs known as the modified terminal Z-band (MTZ). I have found that the MTZ is not a homogenous zone of proteins, but is instead organised into at least three distinct layers. Because of the similarity between the structure of the MTZ with that of a hand, I refer to the layers as ‘fingers’, ‘palm’ and ‘wrist’. I discovered that the IAPs FAK, RSU1, tensin and vinculin are each required for the proper structure of the MTZ in unique ways. The fingers were elongated in IFMs lacking FAK, RSU1, tensin or vinculin, while the palm was disrupted in IFMs lacking RSU1, tensin or vinculin. Finally, I was intrigued by the enrichment of the actin-binding protein filamin/Cheerio in the palm and wished to know if it is required for palm function. Deletion of the C-terminus of filamin/Cheerio resulted in a reduction in palm length. Filamin/Cheerio is a mechanosensitive protein which exists in a closed and open conformation. I found that filamin/Cheerio must be open in order to help form a normal palm. Furthermore, vinculin is required to convert filamin/Cheerio from and closed to an open filamin/Cheerio state so that it can perform its function in the palm.

Background: STAT3 is increasingly becoming known for its non-transcriptional regulation of mitochondrial bioenergetic function upon activation of its S727 residue (S727-STAT3). Lengthy mitochondrial dysfunction can lead to cell death. We tested whether an integrin-FAK-STAT3 signaling pathway we recently discovered regulates mitochondrial function and cell survival, and treatments thereof. Methods: Cultured mouse brain bEnd5 endothelial cells were treated with integrin, FAK or STAT3 inhibitors, FAK siRNA, as well as integrin and STAT3 activators. STAT3 null cells were transfected with mutant STAT3 plasmids. Outcome measures included oxygen consumption rate for mitochondrial bioenergetics, Western blotting for protein phosphorylation, mitochondrial membrane potential for mitochondrial integrity, ROS production, and cell counts. Results: Vitronectin-dependent mitochondrial basal respiration, ATP production, and maximum reserve and respiratory capacities were suppressed within 4 h by RGD and αvβ3 integrin antagonist peptides. Conversely, integrin ligands vitronectin, laminin and fibronectin stimulated mitochondrial function. Pharmacological inhibition of FAK completely abolished mitochondrial function within 4 h while FAK siRNA treatments confirmed the specificity of FAK signaling. WT, but not S727A functionally dead mutant STAT3, rescued bioenergetics in cells made null for STAT3 using CRISPR-Cas9. STAT3 inhibition with stattic in whole cells rapidly reduced mitochondrial function and mitochondrial pS727-STAT3. Stattic treatment of isolated mitochondria did not reduce pS727 whereas more was detected upon phosphatase inhibition. This suggests that S727-STAT3 is activated in the cytoplasm and is short-lived upon translocation to the mitochondria. FAK inhibition reduced pS727-STAT3 within mitochondria and reduced mitochondrial function in a non-transcriptional manner, as shown by co-treatment with actinomycin. Treatment with the small molecule bryostatin-1 or hepatocyte growth factor (HGF), which indirectly activate S727-STAT3, preserved mitochondrial function during FAK inhibition, but failed in the presence of the STAT3 inhibitor. FAK inhibition induced loss of mitochondrial membrane potential, which was counteracted by bryostatin, and increased superoxide and hydrogen peroxide production. Bryostatin and HGF reduced the substantial cell death caused by FAK inhibition over a 24 h period. Conclusion: These data suggest that extracellular matrix molecules promote STAT3-dependent mitochondrial function and cell survival through integrin-FAK signaling. We furthermore show a new treatment strategy for cell survival using S727-STAT3 activators.

Stimulation of β-adrenergic receptors (β-AR) induces apoptosis in adult rat ventricular myocytes (ARVMs) via the JNK-dependent activation of mitochondrial death pathway. Recently, we have shown that inhibition of matrix metalloproteinase-2 (MMP-2) inhibits β-AR-stimulated apoptosis and that the apoptotic effects of MMP-2 are possibly mediated via its interaction with β1 integrins. Herein we tested the hypothesis that MMP-2 impairs β1 integrin-mediated survival signals, such as activation of focal adhesion kinase (FAK), and activates the JNK-dependent mitochondrial death pathway. Inhibition of MMP-2 using SB3CT, a selective gelatinase inhibitor, significantly increased FAK phosphorylation (Tyr-397 and Tyr-576). TIMP-2, tissue inhibitor of MMP-2, produced a similar increase in FAK phosphorylation, whereas treatment of ARVMs with purified active MMP-2 significantly inhibited FAK phosphorylation. Inhibition of MMP-2 using SB3CT inhibited β-AR-stimulated activation of JNKs and levels of cytosolic cytochrome c. Treatment of ARVMs with purified MMP-2 increased cytosolic cytochrome c release. Furthermore, inhibition of MMP-2 using SB3CT and TIMP-2 attenuated β-AR-stimulated decreases in mitochondrial membrane potential. Overexpression of β1 integrins using adenoviruses expressing the human β1A-integrin decreased β-AR-stimulated cytochrome c release and apoptosis. Overexpression of β1 integrins also inhibited apoptosis induced by purified active MMP-2. These data suggest that MMP-2 interferes with the β1 integrin survival signals and activates JNK-dependent mitochondrial death pathway leading to apoptosis.

Vitronectin (VTN) is a glycoprotein in the blood and affects hemostasis. VTN is also present in the extracellular matrix of various organs but little is known about its function in healthy adult tissues. We show, in adult mice, that VTN is uniquely expressed by approximately half of the pericytes of subventricular zone (SVZ) where neurogenesis continues throughout life. Intracerebral VTN antibody injection or VTN knockout reduced neurogenesis as well as expression of pro-neurogenic CNTF, and anti-neurogenic LIF and IL-6. Conversely, injections of VTN, or plasma from VTN+/+, but not VTN−/− mice, increased these cytokines. VTN promoted SVZ neurogenesis when LIF and IL-6 were suppressed by co-administration of a gp130 inhibitor. Unexpectedly, VTN inhibited FAK signaling and VTN−/− mice had increased FAK signaling in the SVZ. Further, an FAK inhibitor or VTN increased CNTF expression, but not in conditional astrocytic FAK knockout mice, suggesting that VTN increases CNTF through FAK inhibition in astrocytes. These results identify a novel role of pericyte-derived VTN in the brain, where it regulates SVZ neurogenesis through co-expression of CNTF, LIF and IL-6. VTN-integrin-FAK and gp130 signaling may provide novel targets to induce neurogenesis for cell replacement therapies.

Excessive endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress leads to cell loss in many diseases, e.g., contributing to endothelial cell loss after spinal cord injury. Here, we determined whether ER stress-induced mitochondrial dysfunction could be explained by interruption of the focal adhesion kinase (FAK)-mitochondrial STAT3 pathway we recently discovered. ER stress was induced in brain-derived mouse bEnd5 endothelial cells by thapsigargin or tunicamycin and caused apoptotic cell death over a 72 h period. In concert, ER stress caused mitochondrial dysfunction as shown by reduced bioenergetic function, loss of mitochondrial membrane potential and increased mitophagy. ER stress caused a reduction in mitochondrial phosphorylated S727-STAT3, known to be important for maintaining mitochondrial function. Normal activation or phosphorylation of the upstream cytoplasmic FAK was also reduced, through mechanisms that involve tyrosine phosphatases and calcium signaling, as shown by pharmacological inhibitors, bisperoxovanadium (bpV) and 2-aminoethoxydiphenylborane (APB), respectively. APB mitigated the reduction in FAK and STAT3 phosphorylation, and improved endothelial cell survival caused by ER stress. Transfection of cells rendered null for STAT3 using CRISPR technology with STAT3 mutants confirmed the specific involvement of S727-STAT3 inhibition in ER stress-mediated cell loss. These data suggest that loss of FAK signaling during ER stress causes mitochondrial dysfunction by reducing the protective effects of mitochondrial STAT3, leading to endothelial cell death. We propose that stimulation of the FAK-STAT3 pathway is a novel therapeutic approach against pathological ER stress.

The objectives of this research were to better characterize the protein signaling complexes that form in response to spermatozoa binding to the bovine oocyte vitelline membrane and to elucidate their potential involvement in oocyte activation. Integrins located on the vitelline membrane of bovine oocytes have been implicated in mediating the sperm-oocyte interaction. Anti-integrin function blocking antibodies and immunofluorescence were utilized in order to reveal that the αV and β1 integrin subunits are essential for fertilization in the bovine and could form the integrin heterodimer involved in the sperm-oocyte interaction. Focal adhesion kinase is localized to focal adhesions and is a key component of signal transduction pathways mediated by integrins. The presence of focal adhesion kinase in bovine oocytes was verified by real-time polymerase chain reaction and immunoprecipitation and the localization of focal adhesion kinase at the site of sperm binding to the oocyte plasma membrane was verified using immunohistochemistry. The inhibition of focal adhesion kinase resulted in fewer cleaved embryos in addition to a reduction in the number of oocytes responding with calcium transients. Phospholipase C isoforms regulate the release of calcium from the endoplasmic reticulum and are known to interact with integrins and focal adhesion kinase. The experiments reported in this dissertation explored the involvement of phospholipase C isoforms endogenous to the oocyte in mediating the calcium release associated with fertilization. Reduction in phospholipase C messenger ribonucleic acid levels for the phospholipase C isoforms γ1 and γ2 resulted in significantly lower cleavage rates compared to the controls. Interestingly, the reduction in messenger ribonucleic acid levels for phospholipase ζ failed to impact cleavage. Maximizing protein levels for the phospholipase C isoforms ζ and γ2 resulted in a significantly higher number of oocytes reaching the 2-cell stage compared to all other treatment groups and not significantly different than the activation control. Together these data illustrate the involvement of the αV and β1 integrin subunits, focal adhesion kinase, and the potential involvement of multiple endogenous phospholipase C isoforms (γ1 and γ2) in bovine oocyte activation. A more complete understanding of the molecular players involved in fertilization could have beneficial impacts for human fertility, assisted reproduction, and improved efficiency of animal somatic cell nuclear transfer.

Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis (IUPUI) / Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) are responsive to mechanical stimuli that play an essential role in directing their differentiation to the chondrogenic lineage. A better understanding of the mechanisms that allow MSCs to respond to mechanical stimuli is important to improving cartilage tissue engineering and regenerative medicine. Hydrostatic pressure (HP) in particular is known to be a primary mechanical force in joints. However, little is known about the underlying mechanisms that facilitate HP mechanotransduction. Understanding the signaling pathways in MSCs in transducing HP to a beneficial biologic response and their interrelationship were the focus of this thesis. Studies used porcine marrow-derived MSCs seeded in agarose gel. Calcium ion Ca++ signaling, focal adhesion kinase (FAK) involvement, and sirtuin1 activity were investigated in conjunction with HP application. Intracellular Ca++ concentration was previously shown to be changed with HP application. In our study a bioreactor was used to apply a single application of HP to the MSC-seeded gel structures and observe Ca++ signaling via live imaging of a fluorescent calcium indicator in cells. However, no fluctuations in Ca++ concentrations were observed with 10 minutes loading of HP. Additionally a problem with the biore actor design was discovered. First the gel was floating around in the bioreactor even without loading. After stabilizing the gel and stopping it from floating, there were still about 16 µm of movement and deformation in the system. The movement and deformation was analyzed for the gel structure and different parts of the bioreactor. Furthermore, we investigated the role of FAK in early and late chondrogenesis and also its involvement in HP mechanotransduction. A FAK inhibitor was used on MSCs from day 1 to 21 and showed a dose-dependent suppression of chondrogenesis. However, when low doses of FAK inhibitor added to the MSC culture from day 21 to 42, chondrogenesis was not inhibited. With 4 hour cyclic HP, FAK phosphorylation increased. The beneficial effect of HP was suppressed with overnight addition of the FAK inhibitor to MSC medium, suggesting FAK involvement in HP mechanotransd ucation by MSCs. Moreover, sirtuin1 participation in MSC chondrogenesis and mechanotransduc tion was also explored. The results indicated that overnight sirtuin1 inhibition in creased chondrogenic gene expression (Agc, Col2, and Sox9) in MSCs. Additionally, the activity of sirtuin1 was decreased with both 4 hour cyclic hydrostatic pressure and inhibitor application. These two together demonstrated that sirtuin1 inhibition enhances chondrogenesis. In this research we have investigated the role of Ca++ signaling, FAK involvement, and sirtuin1 activity in the mechanotransduction of HP in MSCs. These understand ings about the mechanisms regulating the chondrogenesis with respect to HP could have important implications for cartilage tissue engineering and regenerative studies.

Vitronectin (VTN) is a blood protein produced mainly by the liver. We show that VTN leaks from the bloodstream into the injury site and neighboring subventricular zone (SVZ) following ischemic stroke (middle cerebral artery occlusion, MCAO) in adult mice. MCAO is known to increase neurogenesis after stroke. VTN inhibits this response in females, but not in males, as shown by ~70% more stroke-induced SVZ neurogenesis in female VTN−/− mice at 14 d. In female VTN−/− mice, stroke-induced expression of interleukin-6 (IL-6) at 24 h was reduced in the SVZ. The closely related leukemia inhibitory factor (LIF) or pro-neurogenic ciliary neurotrophic factor (CNTF) were not affected. The female-specific effect of VTN on IL-6 expression was not due to sex hormones, as shown by ovariectomy and castration. IL-6 injection next to the SVZ reversed the MCAO-induced increase in neurogenesis seen in VTN−/− mice. Our in vitro and vivo data suggest that plasma VTN activates focal adhesion kinase (FAK) in the SVZ following MCAO, which reduces IL-6 expression in astrocytes but increases it in other cells such as microglia/macrophages. Inducible conditional astrocytic FAK deletion increased MCAO-induced IL-6 expression in females at 24 h and blocked MCAO-induced neurogenesis at 14 d, confirming a key detrimental role of IL-6. Collectively, these data suggest that leakage of VTN into the SVZ reduces the neurogenic response to stroke in female mice by promoting IL-6 expression. Reducing VTN or VTN signaling may be an approach to promote neurogenesis for neuroprotection and cell replacement after stroke in females.