Introduction: The importance of brands and the competition between private and national brands in different food categories increased in recent years. According to literature, except for packaging and price, there is virtually no difference between the contents of food products in the majority of private and national brands. Private brands are usually cheaper than national brands. Previous research indicated consumers’ preferences for private and national brand food products to differ between various products and in different regions. Objective: The aim of this study was thus to determine the relationship between consumers’ brand preferences for different food products, in relation to their demographics and psychographics in a South African context. Setting: A mall intercept, interviewer administered questionnaire was used as a quantitative method in this study in Potchefstroom in a South African context. Consumers’ preferences for private and national brand food products in different product categories were explored, using preference, psychographics and demographical questions simultaneously. Results: Respondents in this study preferred to purchase national brands in all products categories except for cooking oil. Considering eight psychographic factors that were extracted by exploratory factor analysis, two factors could be associated with positive reactions, while neutral reactions were evident for six factors. Respondents being indecisive on the majority of factors could be due to the fact that national brands were preferred for most products by respondents in the present study. Conclusions: Although brand preference depended on demographics and psychographics in previous research, the present study did not find significant relationships with psychographics when different products were used. Although a combination of demographic factors (mainly gender, education level, home language and employment status) could be useful in determining brand preference when used with specific products, home language and education level seem to be the most important factors. Therefore, brand preference depended on specific demographics for each product, while psychographic factors did not play a significant role. This implied that brand preference research should be product and region specific using specific demographic variables. / Thesis (M. Consumer Science)--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2011.

Introduction: The importance of brands and the competition between private and national brands in different food categories increased in recent years. According to literature, except for packaging and price, there is virtually no difference between the contents of food products in the majority of private and national brands. Private brands are usually cheaper than national brands. Previous research indicated consumers’ preferences for private and national brand food products to differ between various products and in different regions. Objective: The aim of this study was thus to determine the relationship between consumers’ brand preferences for different food products, in relation to their demographics and psychographics in a South African context. Setting: A mall intercept, interviewer administered questionnaire was used as a quantitative method in this study in Potchefstroom in a South African context. Consumers’ preferences for private and national brand food products in different product categories were explored, using preference, psychographics and demographical questions simultaneously. Results: Respondents in this study preferred to purchase national brands in all products categories except for cooking oil. Considering eight psychographic factors that were extracted by exploratory factor analysis, two factors could be associated with positive reactions, while neutral reactions were evident for six factors. Respondents being indecisive on the majority of factors could be due to the fact that national brands were preferred for most products by respondents in the present study. Conclusions: Although brand preference depended on demographics and psychographics in previous research, the present study did not find significant relationships with psychographics when different products were used. Although a combination of demographic factors (mainly gender, education level, home language and employment status) could be useful in determining brand preference when used with specific products, home language and education level seem to be the most important factors. Therefore, brand preference depended on specific demographics for each product, while psychographic factors did not play a significant role. This implied that brand preference research should be product and region specific using specific demographic variables. / Thesis (M. Consumer Science)--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2011.

Aim: To determine the use and interpretation of the nutrition information on the food label of selected fat spreads by female consumers aged 25 to 45 years, living in Pietermaritzburg. Objectives: This study set out to determine the following objectives regarding the food label: what the demographics of the consumers making use of the label were; how these consumers used the label and their motivation behind this label use and did the use of the label alter the purchase of that product? Method: One hundred and fifty women aged 25-45 years were chosen from an accidental, non-probability sample of consumers shopping at selected supermarkets within Pietermaritzburg. Respondents were presented with a four part questionnaire surrounding the purchase of selected fat spreads. Results: The greatest number of respondents were from the white population group (n = 65), followed by black respondents (n = 46), Indian respondents (n = 29) and then coloured respondents (n = 10). Results showed that the respondent who was most likely to use the nutrition information on the food label had a tertiary education; was a primary food purchaser, lived with other people, had more than R1000 a month to spend on food and was conscious of choosing the healthier option. Fifty five percent of this study sample (n = 82) claimed to use the nutrition information on the label to assist with purchases and 68% (n = 102) found the nutrition information important for purchasing a new product. Of the potential factors that have previously been found to impede the use of the nutrition information label:-inadequate print size, lack of education as well as lack of nutrition information on the food label were found to be factors restricting label use in this study. The most commonly used sources of nutrition information were the media as well as friends and family and the most trusted source was the Health Professional. Discussion: If the nutrition information is to be used both correctly and effectively, there must be a major educational campaign that sets out to meet the needs of the population that are most vulnerable, especially those with an inadequate education. Conclusion: The consumer most likely to use the nutrition information on the food label has a tertiary education, is a primary food purchaser with a large amount of money available for groceries and is conscious of choosing a healthier option. The label is most likely to be used when purchasing a fat spread for the first time. / Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2006.

Motivation Processed complementary food labels should protect and promote optimal breastfeeding and complementary feeding practices, important determinants of child survival, growth and development, and provide information regarding safe and appropriate use. However, there is a lack of formal guidelines from international normative bodies on the appropriate marketing of complementary foods. In recognition of the need for interim guidance, the Maternal, Infant and Young Child Working Group developed the Draft Guide for Marketing Complementary Foods, which provides practical guidance on how the marketing (including labelling) of processed complementary foods and supplements can be informed by the principles of the International Code of Marketing of Breast-milk Substitutes (the Code) and subsequent relevant World Health Assembly (WHA) resolutions in a way that supports optimal infant and young child feeding. Aim The aim of this study was to describe the extent to which the labelling practices (as a sub-set of marketing practices) of processed complementary food sold in South Africa comply with international guidance on the marketing of complementary foods that is fully aligned with the principles of the Code and subsequent relevant WHA resolutions (the Draft Guide for Marketing Complementary Foods). Methods Employing a cross-sectional study design, products were purchased from a sample of 17 retail grocery stores, three wholesale grocery stores, three retail pharmacies and three baby chain stores in the Gauteng, Western Cape and KwaZulu-Natal provinces from June to August 2011. Purchased products were then compared with a master list of complementary food products compiled through desk research, and missing products were identified and purchased. Label information was captured, then blinded and the order of products randomised. The Draft Guide for Marketing Complementary Foods was used to create a checklist with pre-set answers and accompanying criteria against which the captured labelling practices were then analysed. Results One hundred and sixty product labels of 35 manufacturers were analysed, none of which complied with all checklist criteria. Fifty-six (35%) labels did not provide an appropriate age of introduction, while 32 (20%) labels used phrases implying that the product was suitable for use before six months of age. Thirty-seven (23%) labels used images of infants appearing to be younger than six months. Only 20 (13%) labels carried a message regarding the importance of exclusive breastfeeding for the first six months of life, and none provided a message on the importance of the addition of complementary foods from six months together with continued breastfeeding to two years or beyond. Eight (5%) labels recommended feeding the product in a bottle and two labels (1%) used an image of a feeding bottle. Nineteen (12%) labels suggested a daily ration too large for a breastfed child, and 32 (20%) potentially promote the manufacturer’s infant formula. All labels provided label information in an appropriate language, but 102 (64%) labels relegated required label information to small text and were thus not easy to read. Only six (4%) labels failed to provide instructions for safe and appropriate use, while 44 (28%) did not include safety messages in their preparation and use instructions. Ten (6%) labels did not provide storage instructions, and 27 (17%) labels did not provide necessary warnings. Nutrient content claims, nutrient comparative claims, nutrient function/other function claims and reduction of disease risk claims were found on 126 (79%), eight (5%), 117 (73%) and 10 (6%) labels, respectively. Conclusion The labelling practices of processed complementary food labels in South Africa do not fully comply with international guidance on the marketing of complementary foods (the Draft Guide for Marketing Complementary Foods) and so do not sufficiently protect and promote optimal infant and young child feeding practices, revealing much room for improvement. Such guidance must be refined and formalised by international normative bodies and adopted into national legislation to assist manufacturers in ensuring that their complementary food labels meet an accepted standard and contribute towards the safe and appropriate use of processed complementary foods. / Thesis (MSc (Nutrition))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2013.

Motivation Processed complementary food labels should protect and promote optimal breastfeeding and complementary feeding practices, important determinants of child survival, growth and development, and provide information regarding safe and appropriate use. However, there is a lack of formal guidelines from international normative bodies on the appropriate marketing of complementary foods. In recognition of the need for interim guidance, the Maternal, Infant and Young Child Working Group developed the Draft Guide for Marketing Complementary Foods, which provides practical guidance on how the marketing (including labelling) of processed complementary foods and supplements can be informed by the principles of the International Code of Marketing of Breast-milk Substitutes (the Code) and subsequent relevant World Health Assembly (WHA) resolutions in a way that supports optimal infant and young child feeding. Aim The aim of this study was to describe the extent to which the labelling practices (as a sub-set of marketing practices) of processed complementary food sold in South Africa comply with international guidance on the marketing of complementary foods that is fully aligned with the principles of the Code and subsequent relevant WHA resolutions (the Draft Guide for Marketing Complementary Foods). Methods Employing a cross-sectional study design, products were purchased from a sample of 17 retail grocery stores, three wholesale grocery stores, three retail pharmacies and three baby chain stores in the Gauteng, Western Cape and KwaZulu-Natal provinces from June to August 2011. Purchased products were then compared with a master list of complementary food products compiled through desk research, and missing products were identified and purchased. Label information was captured, then blinded and the order of products randomised. The Draft Guide for Marketing Complementary Foods was used to create a checklist with pre-set answers and accompanying criteria against which the captured labelling practices were then analysed. Results One hundred and sixty product labels of 35 manufacturers were analysed, none of which complied with all checklist criteria. Fifty-six (35%) labels did not provide an appropriate age of introduction, while 32 (20%) labels used phrases implying that the product was suitable for use before six months of age. Thirty-seven (23%) labels used images of infants appearing to be younger than six months. Only 20 (13%) labels carried a message regarding the importance of exclusive breastfeeding for the first six months of life, and none provided a message on the importance of the addition of complementary foods from six months together with continued breastfeeding to two years or beyond. Eight (5%) labels recommended feeding the product in a bottle and two labels (1%) used an image of a feeding bottle. Nineteen (12%) labels suggested a daily ration too large for a breastfed child, and 32 (20%) potentially promote the manufacturer’s infant formula. All labels provided label information in an appropriate language, but 102 (64%) labels relegated required label information to small text and were thus not easy to read. Only six (4%) labels failed to provide instructions for safe and appropriate use, while 44 (28%) did not include safety messages in their preparation and use instructions. Ten (6%) labels did not provide storage instructions, and 27 (17%) labels did not provide necessary warnings. Nutrient content claims, nutrient comparative claims, nutrient function/other function claims and reduction of disease risk claims were found on 126 (79%), eight (5%), 117 (73%) and 10 (6%) labels, respectively. Conclusion The labelling practices of processed complementary food labels in South Africa do not fully comply with international guidance on the marketing of complementary foods (the Draft Guide for Marketing Complementary Foods) and so do not sufficiently protect and promote optimal infant and young child feeding practices, revealing much room for improvement. Such guidance must be refined and formalised by international normative bodies and adopted into national legislation to assist manufacturers in ensuring that their complementary food labels meet an accepted standard and contribute towards the safe and appropriate use of processed complementary foods. / Thesis (MSc (Nutrition))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2013.

L’obiettivo del presente lavoro di ricerca è quello di porre in luce la cosiddetta “dimensione relazionale” dell’informazione fornita ai consumatori di alimenti tramite l’etichettatura nutrizionale e salutistica, intesa quale strumento normativo per l’attuazione delle politiche nutrizionali perseguite dall'Unione Europea. Il presente scritto analizza come le funzioni dell’etichettatura alimentare siano mutate durante i decenni, a partire dalla fine degli anni settanta del secolo scorso, quando essa era sì concepita come strumento informativo, ma il cui scopo principale rimaneva tuttavia quello di appianare le varie difformità legislative o regolamentari esistenti tra i vari Stati Membri – potendo queste rappresentare un ostacolo alla creazione di un mercato comune – sino ai giorni nostri, che vedono l’etichetta come una protagonista attiva in seno ad un più ampio programma di politica nutrizionale; più precisamente, attraverso un’adeguata etichettatura alimentare, le istituzioni dell’Unione Europea ambiscono a plasmare le abitudini alimentari dei consumatori, indirizzandoli verso percorsi nutrizionali più salutari. In tale contesto, il Regolamento sulle indicazioni nutrizionali e sulla salute fornite sugli alimenti rappresenta un ambizioso e, al tempo stesso, controverso tassello del diritto alimentare europeo, le cui premesse ispiratrici erano indubbiamente lodevoli, ma che è stato vittima, successivamente, di un’attuazione che ha generato notevole scontento ed incertezza sia tra i consumatori che nell'industria, al punto tale che da più parti si nutrono dubbi in merito alla sua efficacia e validità. Il presente lavoro di ricerca ambisce quindi a fornire una profonda analisi del Regolamento sulle indicazioni nutrizionali e sulla salute, offrendo una panoramica di esso in chiave storica, sociale, ed economica, imprescindibile al fine di una corretta e completa comprensione delle scelte normative e delle loro implicazioni di mercato. In ossequio a tale intento, in ogni apertura di paragrafo è offerto un inquadramento di taglio storico-normativo, mentre, in conclusione, si tenta di fornire qualche spunto critico da cui potrebbe, o avrebbe potuto, derivare una migliore attuazione del Regolamento. Dopo una breve introduzione, la ricerca entra nel suo vivo attraverso l’analisi di ogni aspetto del Regolamento (CE) n. 1924/2006, soffermandosi, in particolar modo, su quello che è l’aspetto cruciale e problematico relativo alla sua attuazione: il ruolo della scienza e, più precisamente, la valutazione circa la fondatezza scientifica dei claims, procedimento che, in assenza di chiare definizioni normative ed operative, è di fatto rimesso alla discrezionalità interpretativa dell’EFSA, avallata (implicitamente o esplicitamente) dalla Commissione Europea e dalla Corte di Giustizia dell’Unione Europea, generando così reazioni critiche tra pratici ed accademici che accusano una illegittima applicazione del principio di precauzione in un ambito che gli è estraneo, vale a dire quello dell’informazione alimentare al consumatore finale. Il lavoro prosegue poi con una riflessione sull'esito finale di un siffatto adagiamento sul processo di validazione scientifica condotto dall’EFSA, che ha ridotto la più parte della conoscenza nutrizionale a poco più di 200 indicazioni sulla salute autorizzate, la cui formulazione letterale, tra l’altro, si dubita assai possa essere agevolmente compresa dal cosiddetto consumatore medio. Inoltre, il Regolamento lascia irrisolti e aperte molti dilemmi e questioni, che devono urgentemente trovare un positivo interessamento al fine di non vanificare gli apprezzabili sforzi di spinta alla ricerca innovativa e di garanzia di una leale ed effettiva concorrenza nell'industria alimentare; il riferimento corre, tra gli altri, ai cosiddetti “claims botanici” ed ai “probiotici”, in relazione ai quali è ad oggi impedito reclamizzare in etichetta un’indicazione salutistica, sull’assunto per cui non è ancora stato raggiunto un livello accettabile di consenso scientifico relativamente alla loro sicurezza d’uso ed efficacia. Di conseguenza, se lo stato dell’arte è connotato da un simile proibizionismo, gli operatori del settore alimentare si trovano nella situazione di dover ricorrere a diverse strategie commerciali, quali l’utilizzo di claims suggestivi che, proposti attraverso messaggi non testuali, come nel caso del food design, si rivelano cionondimeno in grado di veicolare un messaggio salutistico, senza però la soggezione allo stretto rigore scientifico richiesto dall’EFSA. Infine, il presente lavoro, seppur prevalentemente rivolto alla descrizione dello scenario regolativo europeo, non dimentica di fornire una utile prospettiva del tema anche in chiave comparata, spaziando dalle linee guida predisposte dal Codex Alimentarius agli accordi vigenti in ambito OMC applicabili all’etichettatura degli alimenti, alimentando, per l’appunto, perplessità circa la compatibilità del Regolamento (CE) n° 1924/2006 con le obbligazioni gravanti sull’Unione Europea imposte dalla sua appartenenza al WTO. / The topic of the present research is to highlight the relational dimension of the information provided to consumers via food labelling, intended as a legal tool for the implementation of the nutrition policy carried out by the EU institutions since the establishment of the European Economic Community. The present work analyses how the function of food labelling has changed during the decades, since the late Seventies of the past century, when it was merely conceived as a mean of information whose main purpose was the harmonisation of the different national legislations, which could constitute an unnecessary obstacle to the realization of the common internal market, to the most recent days, when food labelling is thought as a tool of active nutrition policy; more precisely, through an adequate labelling, the EU institutions try to shape consumers’ behaviours, driving them toward a healthier eating. In this regulatory scenario, the Regulation on Nutrition and Health Claims made on foods is an ambitious and controversial piece of European food law, whose premises were undoubtedly laudable, but which has been during the years (partially) implemented in a manner which has caused much more discontent and confusion among both consumers and manufacturers, so that nowadays many doubts are still arising for what concerns its efficacy and its validity. This research represents a deep analysis of the Regulation on Nutrition and Health Claims, also taken into consideration from the historical, sociological, and economic perspective, which must be necessarily intertwined for a complete and critical comprehension of the legal framework and its implications for the various stakeholders. For this reason, each paragraph begins with a sort of normative background, and concludes with a critical analysis of the existing situation, providing some hints for a better implementation of the NHCR. After a brief introduction, the core of the research is completely and deeply focused on each and every aspect of the Regulation, with a central part which takes into consideration the very crucial aspect of its partial and problematic ongoing implementation: the role of science and, more precisely, the requirement of the scientific substantiation of the claims, whose assessment is demanded to the EFSA that, in the absence of definitions and clear guidelines on how to conduct such an evaluation, has de facto given its personal interpretation of the normative provisions of the Regulation, on which also the Commission and the European Court of Justice (implicitly or explicitly) rely, causing discontent among operators and legal scholars who see this as an illegitimate application of the precautionary principle to the field of food information, and a possible departure from the traditional categories of the risk assessment, risk management, and legal interpretation. The analysis proceeds then by criticizing the results of the total reliance on the scientific evaluation carried out by the EFSA, which reduced most of the knowledge about nutrition science in few more than 200 approved health claims, whose wording is probably incomprehensible for the average consumer. Moreover, there are also many other open issues in the Regulation on Nutrition and Health Claims which need to be urgently addressed in order not to vanish the laudable purpose of stimulating innovation and competition in the food sector, namely the botanical claims and probiotics, which are now prevented from bearing health claims on the consideration that a complete scientific consensus about their safety and efficacy has not yet been reached. But if this is the largely prohibitive state of the art, manufacturers are of course encouraged to find different escape routes, one of which is recurring to implied health claims, adopted through non-textual messages, or, to rephrase, through a smart food design, which can convey the same representation of healthiness without being subject to the strict scientific boundaries standardised by the EFSA. In addition, and as a conclusion, the present work, although mainly focused on the European Union regulatory environment, tries to give a comparative view on what the international arena offers on the topic, from the Codex Alimentarius Commission to the various WTO Agreements pertaining to food labelling, instilling doubts about the NHCR compatibility with the obligations that the EU must fulfil in the international trade law relations.