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There were an estimated 11.1% of households experiencing food insecurity in the U.S. in 2018, meaning that they did not have the adequate resources to access safe, nutritious food at some point in the year. In order to support people experiencing food insecurity and related-hunger, national organizations, regional food banks, and local programs operate to recover, organize, and distribute the food available to them. Food recovery work falls into a regulatory grey-area. Should anyone consuming donated food become ill, the food handlers would not be criminally or civilly liable if they distributed it in good faith. There are no federal regulations covering food handling in food recovery, though some states do have such regulations. As a result, safe food handling guidance, education, and training is offered through organized networks and Cooperative Extension. Participating in educational programs increases safe food handling knowledge, however volunteers and employees in food recovery organizations have also been observed to unsafely handle food. Additionally, these resources can be limited in their scope and some are only accessible through membership in pre-existing networks such as Feeding America. The purpose of this work is to further document how food is handled in food recovery and compliment that by collecting the experiences and perceptions of these food handlers as well as Cooperative Extension educators who support them. This work utilized a mixed-methods approach to quantify behaviors and experiences, which compliments qualitatively collected contextual information. Food handlers serving with a university-based student food recovery program, which works to distribute unserved and unsold food from on-campus dining centers, were observed improperly washing their hands, inconsistently keeping records, and using unclean or otherwise contaminated equipment. These behaviors could be addressed through rolespecific education representing their unique operations. Virginia Cooperative Extension (VCE) educators were used as a case study to measure their experiences when supporting food recovery, with 41% of respondents having previously supporting an organization or program. Topics covered ranged from safe food handling, network leadership, financial planning, and farming/gardening. VCE educators expressed a sense of altruism when supporting food recovery organizations, but also experienced challenges such as not having enough time to fully engage or the organization not having adequate equipment to enact their support. VCE educators who had not previously supported these organizations expressed wanting to learn more about food recovery work and how VCE can support them. Employees of food banks believe current food safety education could be improved by offering role-specific information in customizable formats so the food handlers can translate their knowledge into action. Future education should also focus on problemsolving, so food handlers feel empowered to react to expected challenges. Lastly, to account for challenges experienced while conducting this research, future projects within the context of food recovery should consider the limited time available of potential participants, offer compensation for their participation, and maximize pre-existing networks when connecting with them. / Doctor of Philosophy / There were an estimated 11.1% of households experiencing food insecurity in the U.S. in 2018, meaning that they did not have the adequate resources to access safe, nutritious food at some point in the past year. In order to support people experiencing food insecurity and related-hunger, national organizations, regional food banks, and local programs operate to recover, organize, and distribute the food available to them. Food recovery work falls into a regulatory grey-area. Food handlers are not criminally or civilly liable should anyone become ill as a result of consuming food when it is donated in good faith, and guidance in the form of food handling regulations for food recovery varies from state-to-state and is not addressed federally. As a result, safe food handling education and training is offered through organized networks and Cooperative Extension. Participating in educational programs increases safe food handling knowledge, however volunteers and employees in food recovery organizations have also been observed to unsafely handle food. Additionally, these resources can be limited in their scope with some only accessible through membership in pre-existing networks. The purpose of this work is to further document how food is handled in food recovery, which will complement the collection of experiences and perceptions of food handlers and Virginia Cooperative Extension (VCE) educators who support them. Volunteers serving with a university-based student food recovery program, which works to distribute unserved and unsold food from their on-campus dining centers, exhibited a combination of safe and unsafe food handling behaviors which could be addressed through role-specific education representing their unique operations. VCE educators expressed a sense of altruism when supporting food recovery organizations across a range of topics, however they also expressed wanting to know more about their operations and how VCE can support them. Employees of food banks believe current food safety education could be improved by offering role-specific information in a variety of formats paired so the food handlers can translate their knowledge into action. Lastly, to account for challenges experienced while conducting this research, future projects within the context of food recovery should consider limited time potential participants have to serve as well as maximize preexisting networks when recruiting them.

The COVID-19 Pandemic exacerbated a multitude of systems in the United States in 2020 up to current day. The structure of non-profit organizations across the country weakened as demands escalated for free food resources with specific pressure placed on food banks and food recovery organizations. There were citizens who had not previously relied on free food services who found themselves in drive through pickups, waiting for pre-packaged food boxes or the occasional you-pick operation to feed their families and themselves. The increase in demand for free food services was reacted to by those leading and directing the free food distribution sites through a time of crisis. This qualitative study serves to analyze food recovery organization (FRO) leadership strategies and principles that guided their decision making and problem-solving skills in response to food shortages and supply chain issues. The merge of the eight pillars of transformational and servant leadership theory provided propositional pillars that were tested in practice through interviews with FRO leaders in Appalachia. The discovery of how these leadership strategies were enacted during a time of crisis will guide the development of a training curriculum for nonprofit leaders in the future. / Master of Science in Life Sciences / The COVID-19 Pandemic exacerbated a multitude of systems in the United States in 2020 up to current day. The structure of non-profit organizations across the country weakened as demands escalated for free food resources with specific pressure placed on food banks and food recovery organizations. There were citizens who had not previously relied on free food services who found themselves in drive through pickups, waiting for pre-packaged food boxes or the occasional you-pick operation to feed their families and themselves. The increase in demand for free food services was reacted to by those leading and directing the free food distribution sites through a time of crisis. This qualitative study serves to analyze food recovery organization (FRO) leadership strategies and principles that guided their decision making and problem-solving skills in response to food shortages and supply chain issues. The merge of the eight pillars of transformational and servant leadership theory provided propositional pillars that were tested in practice through interviews with FRO leaders in Appalachia. The discovery of how these leadership strategies were enacted during a time of crisis will guide the development of a training curriculum for nonprofit leaders in the future.

The practice of gleaning began as a way for the poor to provide sustenance for themselves and their families. Changes in societal ideas about private property as well as a shift toward a neoliberal style of governance have caused gleaning to become what it is today: a practice primarily undertaken by charitable organizations, nonprofits, and church groups who then donate their bounty to local food banks, providing fresh produce to the food insecure. In modern society, gleaning is often held up as a single solution to the problems of food insecurity, poor nutrition, and food waste. This thesis complicates that discourse by analyzing the websites of five different San Francisco Bay Area gleaning groups to investigate how they present themselves as fitting into the larger conversation surrounding food charity, health, and food waste. This thesis uses qualitative and quantitative textual analysis to show how the language used on each organization’s website illustrates the organization’s relationship with those three values. Each organization presents itself as fitting into contemporary food recovery discourse in a different way: one focuses primarily on community building; one is looking to expand its model as far as possible; one seeks to be a solution to poor nutrition, food insecurity, and food waste in its community; one provides myriad resources to anyone looking; and one actively embraces the food insecure. The differences among these organizations show the one-dimensionality of the current discourse surrounding gleaning as a single solution to food insecurity, poor nutrition, and food waste. While gleaning can, and does, have value, its focus on the individual’s role in solving food insecurity, poor nutrition, and food waste, as well as its inability to provide long-term solutions, complicates its role in contemporary food recovery.

The Master's thesis "Food Waste in the United States as an Issue of Federal Public Policy Making" analyzes the role of the federal government in dealing with food waste. It mainly focuses on federal legislation, but it also examines actions on the state level to illustrate the contrast between the two. In the thesis, the author examines the causes and sources of food waste, federal jurisdiction for intervention, and the history of passed legislation, as well as proposed legislation, and solutions. The main goal of the thesis is to demonstrate that federal involvement is fundamental in achieving any significant change, but so far has failed to do so. Primary literature consisting largely of bills, materials published by federal agencies, and reports by non-profit organizations were used to uncover the character of passed legislation. Academic secondary literature in the form of articles, reports, and factsheets offered context to understand the scope and impacts of the legislation. Analysis of those sources revealed federal authority to deal with the issue, as well as possible obstacles standing in the way of an extensive federal intervention. Research also showed that in the absence of federal action, some states have stepped up to introduce legislation to reduce food waste, but this legislation is...