Agricultural biodiversity, commonly referred to as agrobiodiversity, is that part of biodiversity that is geared towards agriculture and food production. Agrobiodiversity is said to contribute much to food and nutrition, but there is lack of data confirming this, particularly from Eastern Africa. To assess the extent of agrobiodiversity on smallholder farms and in local markets and to connect these to food intake and perceptions of food security among smallholder farmers in Western Kenya, the thesis asks four main research questions: (i) What is the extent of food plant diversity in smallholder farms, the bio-physical and socio-economic factors influencing it and the contribution of this diversity to the household's food needs? (ii) What is the relationship between agricultural and dietary diversity? (iii) What linkages are there between agricultural and nutritional diversity? (iv) How does access to agrobiodiversity in local markets contribute to meeting household food needs and what is the extent of smallholder farmers' integration into these markets? Through a combination of focus group discussions, farm and market surveys conducted across three time points, results indicate that: (i) higher food plant species richness is found on farms managed by wealthier and older households. However, these households are not more food secure than the rest, (ii) while there is a lack of a strong relationship between agricultural and dietary diversity, dietary diversity is instead significantly influenced by socio-economic factors including a household's wealth status, ethnicity and education level, (iii) despite a diversity of locally available on-farm and market food species meeting existing macro-and micro-nutrient needs, there is a general lack of understanding of this diversity as food shortage months coincide with a lack of maize despite high availability of a diversity of other foods not only to replace the maize but also to contribute to a diverse diet, (iv) smallholder farmers rely on multiple food sources, with markets mainly for sourcing cereals, fruits and animal source foods. There is also low integration of smallholder farmers as sellers in local markets. Together, the four case studies show interlinkages across food availability, accessibility and utilisation, which when addressed with equal weight, could unlock local agrobiodiversity's potential as a path to food and nutrition security of smallholder farming households.

Thesis (PhD)--Stellenbosch University, 2014. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Research aim The study aimed to explore the associations between agricultural biodiversity, household food security and dietary diversity in households with children aged 24 to 59 months in two rural areas of Kenya, of which one had higher rainfall and agricultural biodiversity than the other. Methods Study sample and location The study adopted a cross-sectional analytical approach to investigate the associations in resource in poor households in two rural areas; Akithii and Uringu of Kenya. Of the 525 households randomly selected, 261 were from Uringu division and 264 from Akithii division. Two independent cross-sectional surveys were conducted; Phase one in September to October 2011 (during the dry season) while Phase 2 took place in March 2012 (during the rainy season). A questionnaire was developed to gather information on the socio-demographics of the household, breastfeeding and infant feeding practices, immunization and childhood illnesses. Dietary intake was measured during each season by conducting a repeated 24-hour recall (24-hr recall) with the mother/care giver of the household. A nutrient adequacy ratio (NAR) was calculated for each nutrient as the percent of the nutrient meeting the recommended dietary intake (RDI) value for that nutrient. A mean adequacy ratio (MAR) was calculated for 11 nutrients as the mean of the NARs of these nutrients. Dietary diversity was measured using data from the 24-hour recalls and classifying it into nine food groups. A dietary diversity score (DDS) was calculated based on each different food group which was consumed during the period of recall up to a maximum of nine if the food had been consumed from each of the nine groups. Household food security (HFS) was measured using the Household Food Insecurity Access Scale (HFIAS). The agricultural biodiversity was calculated by counting the number of different crops and animals eaten either from domestic sources or from the wild. Weight and height measurements of children and their mothers/care givers were taken. Weight for age (WAZ), height for age (HAZ) and weight for height z (WHZ) scores were determined for children, while body mass index (BMI) measurements were calculated for the adult women. The relationships between continuous response variables and nominal input variables were analyzed using appropriate analysis of variance (ANOVA) or pooled, paired and independent mean T-tests when only two groups were involved. Results Dietary intake was low with the majority of households not meeting the RDIs for most nutrients. The MAR was 61.3%; 61.8% for Phase 1 and 2 respectively. The DDS was low at 3.3 ±1.2 for both Phases. The majority of households were food insecure with a HFIAS mean of 12.8 ± 6.19 and 10.9 ± 7.49 for Phase 1 and 2 respectively. Agricultural biodiversity was low with a total of 26 items; 23 domesticated and 3 from the natural habitat. Two food items from the natural habitat originated from plants and one from animals. Exclusive breastfeeding up to the recommended six months was practiced at low rates of 23.4% while 39.3% of mothers in both divisions introduced complementary foods before 6 months of age. Stunted growth among the children was high at a mean of 30.5% (n=291). Boys had higher stunted growth rates in both divisions compared to the girls. A significant positive relationship was established between the number of contributors to household income with height for age z-scores (HAZ) scores of the children (Spearman r=-0.15, p=0.02). The number of household assets also significantly influenced HAZ scores (Spearman r=-0.17, p=0.01), the higher the number of household assets, the lower HAZ scores were. During Phase 1 (dry season) (pooled t-test, p<0.001), levels of food insecurity were higher compared to Phase 2 (wet season) (pooled t-test, p<0.001); showing the influence of season on food security. Phases 1 & 2 showed that Akithii had a significantly higher level of food insecurity (Mann-Whitney U; p<0.01), and a lower DDS (chi-square test, p<0.001) compared to Uringu. Children in Akithii consumed a less diversified diet than those in Uringu. Agricultural biodiversity was positively and significantly related to: HFIAS (Spearman r=-0.10, p=0.02); DDS (ANOVA, p<0.001); all NARs (Spearman, p<0.05) and MAR (Spearman, p<0.001).This implies that households with higher agricultural biodiversity were more likely to be food secure, have higher dietary diversity levels and a diet comprising a higher nutritional value. DDS was significantly correlated to MAR and NARs of all the nutrients studied in this study. Findings showed that DDS was also consistently significantly inversely correlated to Household Food Insecurity Access Prevalence (HFIAP) (R =-0.185, t (N-2)-3.889), p=0.0001). This correlation showed that an increase in dietary diversity inversely affected HFIAS. A significant relationship was found between HFIAP and MAR (ANOVA, p=0.00268); indicating that households with a higher MAR were more likely to be food secure. There was a significant correlation between the BMI of the mother/care giver and the WAZ scores of the children (r=0.1410, p<0.001); indicating that higher HAZ scores were found in mothers with higher mean BMI values. There was a significant difference between households with and without children with stunted growth in DDS (ANOVA; p=0.047) and HFIAS (ANOVA; p=0.009) but not with agricultural biodiversity score (ANOVA; p=0.486). The agricultural biodiversity mean score for households with children presenting with stunted growth were, however, lower at 6.8, compared to 7.0 for those with normal growth however the p value was not significant. This indicates that households with children with stunted growth and those without are significantly different in DDS and HFIAS but not regarding agricultural biodiversity. This further implies that the potential of DDS and HFIAS to be used as proxy measures for stunting be further explored. Conclusion Agricultural biodiversity has a positive impact on household food security, dietary diversity, dietary adequacy and child growth. Food security is closely linked to dietary diversity and dietary adequacy; therefore improving one is likely to improve the other two and impact positively on child growth status. Interventions to improve child health and food security in resource poor rural households should aim at increasing dietary diversity through agricultural biodiversity. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Navorsingsdoel Die studie is daarop gemik om die assosiasies tussen die landbou-biodiversiteit, huishoudelike voedselsekerheid en dieetdiversiteit in huishoudings met kinders tussen die ouderdomme van 24 tot 59 maande in twee landelike gebiede van Kenia, waarvan een 'n hoër reënval en landbou-biodiversiteit as die ander gehad het, te verken. Metodes Studie steekproef en plek Die studie het 'n deursnit-analitiese benadering aangeneem om die assosiasies te ondersoek in hulpbron-arm huishoudings in twee landelike gebiede; Akithii en Uringu van Kenia. Van die 525 huishoudings wat ewekansig gekies is, was 261 van Uringu afdeling en 264 van Akithii afdeling. Twee onafhanklike deursnit-opnames is uitgevoer; fase een in September tot Oktober 2011 (tydens die droë seisoen), terwyl Fase 2 in Maart 2012 (gedurende die reënseisoen) plaasgevind het. 'n Vraelys is ontwikkel om inligting oor die sosio-demografie van die huishouding, borsvoeding en babavoeding praktyke, immunisering en kindersiektes in te samel. Dieetinname is gemeet tydens elke seisoen deur die uitvoer van 'n herhaalde 24-uur herroep met die moeder / versorger van die huishouding. 'n Voedingstof toereikendheidsverhouding (VTR) is bereken vir elke voedingstof, uitgedruk as die persentasie van die voedingstof wat voldoen aan die aanbevole dieetinname (ADI) waarde vir daardie voedingstof. 'n Gemiddelde toereikendheidsverhouding (GTR) is bereken vir 11 voedingstowwe uitgedruk as die gemiddelde van die VTR‘s van hierdie voedingstowwe. Dieetdiversiteit is gemeet deur data vanuit die 24-uur herroepe, geklassifiseer in nege voedselgroepe. 'n Dieetdiversiteit telling (DDT) is bereken op grond van elke verskillende voedselgroep wat gedurende die tydperk van herroep ingeneem is tot 'n maksimum van nege, indien die voedsel verbruik is uit elk van die nege groepe. Huishoudelike voedselsekerheid (HVS) is gemeet deur die huishoudelike voedselonsekerheid toegangskaal (HVOTS) te gebruik. Die landbou-biodiversiteit is bereken deur die som te bereken van die aantal verskillende gewasse en diere geëet óf van huishoudelike bronne óf uit die natuur. Gewig en lengte metings is geneem van die kinders en hul moeders / versorgers. Gewig vir ouderdom (GVO), lengte vir ouderdom (LVO) en gewig vir lengte (GVL) Z-tellings is bepaal vir die kinders, terwyl die liggaamsmassa-indeks (LMI) metings bereken is vir die volwasse vroue. Die verhoudings tussen aaneenlopende reaksie veranderlikes en nominale inset veranderlikes is ontleed met behulp van toepaslike analise van variansie (ANOVA) of saamgevoegde, gepaarde en onafhanklike gemiddelde T-toetse, indien slegs twee groepe betrokke was. Resultate Dieetinname was laag en die meerderheid van huishoudings het nie aan die ADIs vir die meeste voedingstowwe voldoen nie. Die GTR is 61,3% en 61,8% vir onderskeidelik fase 1 en 2. Die DDT is laag; 3,3 ±1,2 vir beide fases. Die meerderheid van huishoudings was voedselonseker met 'n gemiddelde HVOST van 12,8 ±6,19 en 10,9 ±7,49 vir onderskeidelik fase 1 en 2. Landbou-biodiversiteit was laag met 'n totaal van 26 items, 23 huishoudelike en 3 vanuit die natuurlike habitat. Twee voedselitems uit die natuurlike habitat was afkomstig van plante en een vanaf diere. Eksklusiewe borsvoeding, tot die aanbevole ses maande, was laag en beoefen deur 23,4%, terwyl 39,3% van die moeders, in beide streke, komplimentêre voedsel voor 6 maande ouderdom bekendgestel het. Vertraagde groei onder die kinders was hoog met 'n gemiddeld van 30,5% (n=291). Seuns het hoër vertraagde groei in beide streke in vergelyking met dogters getoon. ʼn Beduidende positiewe verhouding is gevind tussen die aantal bydraers tot huishoudelike inkomste en lengte vir ouderdom z-tellings (LOZ) van die kinders (Spearman r=-0,15, P=0,02). Die aantal huishoudelike bates het ook LOZ tellings (Spearman r=-0,17, P=0,01) aansienlik beïnvloed; hoe hoër die aantal huishoudelike bates, hoe laer die LOZ tellings. Tydens fase 1 (droë seisoen) (saamgevoegde t-toets, p<0.001), was vlakke van voedselonsekerheid hoër in vergelyking met fase 2 (nat seisoen) (saamgevoegde t-toets, p <0.001), wat die invloed van die seisoenaliteit op voedeselsekerheid uitwys. Fase 1 en 2 het gewys dat Akithii ʼn beduidende hoër vlak van voedselonsekerheid gehad het (Mann-Whitney U; p<0.01) en ʼn laer DDT (chi-square toets, p<0.001) in vergelyking met Uringu. Kinders in Akithii het ʼn dieet laer in diversiteit ingeneem as die in Uringu. Landbou-biodiversiteit is positief en beduidend verwant aan: HVOTS (Spearman r = -0,10, P = 0,02); DDT (ANOVA, p<0.001), alle VTR‘s (Spearman, p <0.05) en GTR (Spearman, p <0.001). Dit impliseer dat huishoudings met 'n hoër landbou-biodiversiteit, meer geneig is om voedselseker te wees, hoër dieetdiversiteit vlakke en ʼn hoër voedingswaarde het. DDT is beduidend gekorreleer aan GTR en VTT‘s van al die voedingstowwe wat bestudeer is in hierdie studie. Bevindinge het getoon dat DDT konsekwent en beduidend omgekeerd gekorreleer is met huishoudelike voedselonsekerheid toegang prevalensie (HVOTP) (R=-0,185, t(N-2)-3,889), p=0,0001). Hierdie korrelasie toon dat 'n toename in dieetdiversiteit HVOTS omgekeerd beïnvloed het. ʼn Betekenisvolle verhouding is gevind tussen HVOTP en GTR (ANOVA, p=0,00268); wat aandui dat huishoudings met 'n hoër GTR meer geneig is om voedselsekerheid te toon. Daar is 'n beduidende korrelasie tussen die LMI van die moeder / versorger en die GOZ tellings van die kinders (r=0,1410, p<0.001), wat aandui dat hoër LOZ tellings gevind is in moeders met hoër gemiddelde LMI waardes. Daar is 'n beduidende verskil tussen huishoudings met en sonder kinders met dwerggroei se DDT (ANOVA; p=0.047) en HVOTS (ANOVA; p=0.009) maar nie die landbou-diversiteit telling nie (ANOVA; p=0.486). Die gemiddelde landbou-diversiteit telling vir huishoudings met en sonder kinders met dwerggroei is egter laer met 6.8 in vergelyking met 7.0 vir die met normale groei. Die p-waarde is egter nie beduidend nie. Dit dui aan dat huishoudings met kinders met dwerggroei en daarsonder beduidend verskillend is ten opsigte van DDT en HVOTS, maar nie met landbou-diversiteit in die studie nie. Dit impliseer verder dat die potensiaal van DDT en HVOTS om gebruik te word as alternatiewe metings vir dwerggroei verder ondersoek moet word. Gevolgtrekking Landbou-biodiversiteit het 'n positiewe impak op huishoudelike voedselsekerheid, dieetdiversiteit, dieettoereikendheid en groei van kinders. Voedselsekerheid is nou gekoppel aan dieetdiversiteit en dieettoereikendheid, daarom sal die verbetering van die een waarskynlik die ander twee positief beïnvloed asook ʼn positiewe impak hê op die groei van kinders. Intervensies vir die verbetering van kindergesondheid en voedselsekerheid in hulpbron-arm landelike huishoudings moet poog om dieetdiversiteit te verhoog deur landbou-biodiversiteit.

Food insecurity has remained pervasive for most Kenyan livelihoods despite the implementation of substantive interventions by the government and its development partners, since it gained independence in 1963. The inability to isolate distinct determinants of food insecurity for each livelihood group has led to interventions and solutions that have entrenched food insecurity rather than mitigate it. The key impediment to a livelihood-level analysis of food insecurity is the use of data and information collected at district-level administrative units, coupled with the absence of a robust analytical methodology. This study set out to identify determinants of food insecurity for three distinct livelihood groups in Kenya, namely the pastoral, agro-pastoral and marginal agricultural groups. The study also sought to empirically evaluate incremental impacts of identified determinants of food insecurity for each group. The outcomes were intended to inform the selection of particular indicators in order to target, monitor and identify important inter-relationships between variables for each livelihood group. Few studies have applied heterogeneous ordered logit regressions to livelihood-level data to evaluate food security determinants among livelihood groups and a comprehensive livelihood analysis of the determinants of food insecurity has not yet been undertaken in Kenya. Yet, Kenyan livelihoods are highly diverse, and livelihood characteristics transcend administrative boundaries. This study used a heterogeneous ordered logit to model determinants of food security in Kenya. The variables were: conflict, HIV/AIDS, rainfall, flooding, proximity to markets, migration patterns, food consumption sources, income contribution sources and own farm production. Results of significance tests and residual variability from the ordered logistic regression led to the identification of important determinants of food insecurity in each of the three livelihoods. The degree to which each of the variables was influential in accentuating food insecurity in each livelihood, was also evaluated. Determinants of food insecurity and their inter-relationships informed the selection of indicators for monitoring. Proximity to markets seemed to have a marked impact on food security in the pastoral, agropastoral and marginal agricultural livelihood groups. Conflict was influential in determining food insecurity, particularly for the pastoral and agro-pastoral livelihood groups. HIV/AIDS prevalence in the community was critical in determining food security status for the marginal agricultural and agro-pastoral livelihood groups. Rainfall was an important determinant of food insecurity in all the groups. Flooding had no significant impact on food insecurity. The results showed that an increase in the number of food sources improved food security in the pastoral, agro-pastoral and marginal agricultural livelihood groups. A diversity of income sources improved food security in the pastoral and agro-pastoral livelihood groups. The pastoral migration pattern seemed to have a substantial impact on food security especially in the pastoral and agro-pastoral livelihood groups. Own farm production was also influential in determining food security in both groups. The study outcome provides a basis for identification of important monitoring indicators including agro-climatic, trade and market processes, migration dynamics, income and food sources and the stability, settlement patterns, key livelihood and coping strategies in the three livelihood groups. The strong inter-relationships between variables suggest that multiple variables need to be monitored concurrently to address livelihood food insecurity in Kenya. The findings suggest that livelihood approaches are central to identifying determinants of food insecurity in Kenya. The outcomes of the study provide a basis for informing interventions intended to reverse food insecurity in Kenya for each distinct livelihood group. Further research could include an analysis of the impacts of seasonality, an in-depth analysis of the markets and their marked influence in affecting food security, and applications of similar methodologies to evaluate of the food insecurity of livelihood groups that were not covered in this study. Outcomes of this work are expected to provide a basis for formulating livelihood-specific interventions in Kenya. The results will provide a platform for further interrogation of important determinants of livelihood food insecurity by governments, researchers, and development partners. Aspects of the methodologies applied in this study can be replicated in adjacent countries with food security and livelihood characteristics similar to Kenya, such as Ethiopia and Somalia. / Thesis (Ph.D.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2012.

Given the livelihoods challenges which face many rural communities, understanding a community’s livelihoods dynamics and opportunities is one major step to developing workable options to address the challenges. This study has focused on one rural community and used the five determinants of the Sustainable Livelihoods Approach to describe the livelihoods situation in Embui sub-location in Machakos County, Kenya. Residents of Embui have had to deal with the fact that traditional production systems are not sufficient to provide for their livelihoods needs. The community and continues to be challenged by limited capital for diversifying income sources, low skills and limited social and economic services. This study recommends support to marketing of locally produced artifacts, improved access to capital and provision of water for irrigation along with extension services as the key areas of support to improve the living standards of the residents of Embui / Development Studies / M.A. (Development Studies)

Given the livelihoods challenges which face many rural communities, understanding a community’s livelihoods dynamics and opportunities is one major step to developing workable options to address the challenges. This study has focused on one rural community and used the five determinants of the Sustainable Livelihoods Approach to describe the livelihoods situation in Embui sub-location in Machakos County, Kenya. Residents of Embui have had to deal with the fact that traditional production systems are not sufficient to provide for their livelihoods needs. The community and continues to be challenged by limited capital for diversifying income sources, low skills and limited social and economic services. This study recommends support to marketing of locally produced artifacts, improved access to capital and provision of water for irrigation along with extension services as the key areas of support to improve the living standards of the residents of Embui / Development Studies / M.A. (Development Studies)