Abstract This study shows how the chronic poor living in the urban context of Rosario overcome their limitations to achieve livelihood goals in their attempt to move above the poverty line. A theoretical perspective, which complements the concept, definitions and analytical viewpoints concerning: livelihoods, resilience and adaptation, chronic poverty, poverty dynamics and poverty line, is outlined to reflect the findings with the existing theories that enable examining the limiting and the supporting factors that really matter for the livelihood of the poor. In total, 27 interviews were conducted, 12 with selected participants who were living in the situation of chronic poverty in the year 2000, and 15 with key informants and other stakeholders in order to explore the life experiences of the poor through: the context vulnerability; access to assets; policy, institutions and processes; livelihood strategies and outcomes. After examining how the chronic poor living in Rosario are able to make their way of living, it has been observed that for them it is not possible to secure strategies which assure enough returns to improve their resilience, capacity of adaptation and reduction of vulnerability if there is no financial and technical support beyond the support given to them in terms of social protection to cover their basic needs. It has also been found that the support and accompaniment given to them during their changing process require a well-coordinated implementation of public policies, programs and projects which need to be improved. Thus, a humanitarian approach focusing on the household livelihood security which links emergency, recovery and development is described  to analyze what is being done in Rosario in terms of programing and on the other hand to formulate some recommendations to improve them.

This thesis examines how livelihood diversification is also a site in which gender relations are unsettled, maintained and (re)configured. With the aim of strengthening the links between feminist and agrarian change scholarship, I present ethnographic material from Naga, a medium-size city in Bicol, Philippines, to explore how daily discourses, practices and performances of livelihood change are instrumental in mapping ways of life that are gendered. In the first part of the thesis, attention is devoted to the inadequate, or at least outdated, attention to gender relations in previous models of livelihood change, and to spell out some of the implications its integration may bring. In the remaining part of the thesis my aim is to indicate how this integration should be achieved. Specifically, I highlight some of the problems stemming from ‘structural’ analyses of gender, and emphasize the fresh perspectives opened up by a post-structural, performative approach. I then proceed to the Naga context, where I present two case studies to ‘flesh out’ these theoretical claims in more depth. Part One traces the involvement of state institutions in these changing political economies. Specifically, I consider how local state policies and practices associated with agrarian change are not simply implicated in people’s tendency to diversify, but also in the (re)production of gender identities. Notions of male responsibility and women’s rightful position in the home emerge as particularly important in this respect. In Part Two, I move to Pacol, a small farming community located on Naga’s peri-urban fringe. By drawing on interview and focus group material provided by ten ‘diversifying’ households, I consider how these discourses come into being; how they are worked through and (re)produced inperformances.

The green microcredit project in Bangladesh started with the focus of promoting environmental-friendly livelihood practices among the rural marginalized people whose livelihoods were dependent on the extraction of local natural resources. This research examined at the livelihood practices and the livelihood capital of the green microcredit borrowers in Arpara, under Magura District, and in Borlekha, under Moulvibazar District, Bangladesh. Using the Department for International Development, UK (DFID) sustainable livelihood framework, the research analyzed the changes in the borrowers’ capital. The research used both qualitative and quantitative approaches to collect field data using different PRA tools and a survey. It was clear from the research that green microcredit is becoming more popular among the natural resource-dependent borrowers. It was also apparent that the green microcredit borrowers have greater social and human capital than the conventional microcredit borrowers. Although the concept has been in practice for only a short duration, the success of the green microcredit project has encouraged other borrowers to opt for green microcredit. In its short existence, the green microcredit project has had some successes and setbacks. During the data collection process, several strengths and weaknesses were identified. In the concluding chapter, a few recommendations have been put forward keeping in mind the strengths and weaknesses of the project. The positive effects of green microcredit on the environment and natural resource base could be seen in the long run if and when the project is scaled up.

The green microcredit project in Bangladesh started with the focus of promoting environmental-friendly livelihood practices among the rural marginalized people whose livelihoods were dependent on the extraction of local natural resources. This research examined at the livelihood practices and the livelihood capital of the green microcredit borrowers in Arpara, under Magura District, and in Borlekha, under Moulvibazar District, Bangladesh. Using the Department for International Development, UK (DFID) sustainable livelihood framework, the research analyzed the changes in the borrowers’ capital. The research used both qualitative and quantitative approaches to collect field data using different PRA tools and a survey. It was clear from the research that green microcredit is becoming more popular among the natural resource-dependent borrowers. It was also apparent that the green microcredit borrowers have greater social and human capital than the conventional microcredit borrowers. Although the concept has been in practice for only a short duration, the success of the green microcredit project has encouraged other borrowers to opt for green microcredit. In its short existence, the green microcredit project has had some successes and setbacks. During the data collection process, several strengths and weaknesses were identified. In the concluding chapter, a few recommendations have been put forward keeping in mind the strengths and weaknesses of the project. The positive effects of green microcredit on the environment and natural resource base could be seen in the long run if and when the project is scaled up.

This thesis examines how livelihood diversification is also a site in which gender relations are unsettled, maintained and (re)configured. With the aim of strengthening the links between feminist and agrarian change scholarship, I present ethnographic material from Naga, a medium-size city in Bicol, Philippines, to explore how daily discourses, practices and performances of livelihood change are instrumental in mapping ways of life that are gendered. In the first part of the thesis, attention is devoted to the inadequate, or at least outdated, attention to gender relations in previous models of livelihood change, and to spell out some of the implications its integration may bring. In the remaining part of the thesis my aim is to indicate how this integration should be achieved. Specifically, I highlight some of the problems stemming from ‘structural’ analyses of gender, and emphasize the fresh perspectives opened up by a post-structural, performative approach. I then proceed to the Naga context, where I present two case studies to ‘flesh out’ these theoretical claims in more depth. Part One traces the involvement of state institutions in these changing political economies. Specifically, I consider how local state policies and practices associated with agrarian change are not simply implicated in people’s tendency to diversify, but also in the (re)production of gender identities. Notions of male responsibility and women’s rightful position in the home emerge as particularly important in this respect. In Part Two, I move to Pacol, a small farming community located on Naga’s peri-urban fringe. By drawing on interview and focus group material provided by ten ‘diversifying’ households, I consider how these discourses come into being; how they are worked through and (re)produced inperformances.

The response of small scale agricultural producers in the Philippines to livelihood threats arising from market integration has received less attention than responses to other threats. The ability of agricultural producers to respond to changes in their production environment is an important component of livelihood resilience. This research unravels the patterns of livelihood response used by small scale agricultural producers in the Philippines affected by livelihood threats resulting from changes in their production environment as a result of agricultural trade liberalisation. Research was conducted at the household level using a sustainable livelihoods based approach in order to examine the following research questions: (1) Does current livelihood and disaster theory adequately account for and explain the diverse livelihood options pursued by small scale agricultural producers facing threats based on deterioration?; (2) Are current distinctions between different patterns of responses and the rationale of such responses appropriate?; (3) Are current research methods adequate to the task of picking out individualized patterns and rationales of response?; and (4) What is the role of historical factors (institutional and personal) of past events – in moulding patterns of response? Findings from this study contribute to the limited existing empirical data on livelihood strategies in Mindanao. In particular the research shows that while current research methods capture the various livelihood activities that people engage in, they tend to take a static view of livelihoods, failing to capture the complexity of historical influences on livelihoods and livelihood pathways over time. The findings from the study also demonstrate that factors beyond context which are embedded in personal circumstance play a significant role in the rationale and patterns of livelihood response used by small scale producers in the research sites. The implications of these findings are considered from a wider policy and practice perspective and recommendations as regards the future directions of current research methods are presented.

This thesis examines how livelihood diversification is also a site in which gender relations are unsettled, maintained and (re)configured. With the aim of strengthening the links between feminist and agrarian change scholarship, I present ethnographic material from Naga, a medium-size city in Bicol, Philippines, to explore how daily discourses, practices and performances of livelihood change are instrumental in mapping ways of life that are gendered. In the first part of the thesis, attention is devoted to the inadequate, or at least outdated, attention to gender relations in previous models of livelihood change, and to spell out some of the implications its integration may bring. In the remaining part of the thesis my aim is to indicate how this integration should be achieved. Specifically, I highlight some of the problems stemming from ‘structural’ analyses of gender, and emphasize the fresh perspectives opened up by a post-structural, performative approach. I then proceed to the Naga context, where I present two case studies to ‘flesh out’ these theoretical claims in more depth. Part One traces the involvement of state institutions in these changing political economies. Specifically, I consider how local state policies and practices associated with agrarian change are not simply implicated in people’s tendency to diversify, but also in the (re)production of gender identities. Notions of male responsibility and women’s rightful position in the home emerge as particularly important in this respect. In Part Two, I move to Pacol, a small farming community located on Naga’s peri-urban fringe. By drawing on interview and focus group material provided by ten ‘diversifying’ households, I consider how these discourses come into being; how they are worked through and (re)produced inperformances. / Arts, Faculty of / Geography, Department of / Graduate

Households in rural Ecuador face several challenges. One of them is the severe deprivation that reaches alarming percentages in the countryside. Unequal distribution and limited assets constrain households from improving their economic conditions. These factors induce households to overexploit natural resources. Poor households engage in a variety of livelihood strategies. Livelihood strategies are characterized by the allocation of assets (natural, physical, financial, public, social and human), income-earning activities (on farm, off farm), and outcomes (food, income, security). Together these determine the well-being attained by an individual or households. We used data collected by INIAP as part of the SANREM-CRSP project to identify livelihood strategies, their determinants, and well-being implications of adopting a particular livelihood. These data were from a comprehensive survey of 286 households collected during September and November, 2006. Livelihood strategies for the Chimbo watershed were identified using qualitative and quantitative methods. The methods provide similar results and identified four main livelihoods: households engaged in diversified activities, agricultural markets, non-farm activities, and agricultural wage work. Most households are engaged in agricultural markets followed by households in diversified activities. Households engaged in agricultural markets own higher amounts of natural and physical resources, while households engaged in non-farm activities have, on average, more human capital. Households participating in agricultural wage work are mainly from the down-stream watershed and posses less natural, physical and human assets. Factors influencing the selection of livelihood strategies were examined using a multinomial logit model. Variables such as access to irrigation, amount of farm surface and value of physical assets were statistically significant determinants of livelihood selection. Households with higher endowments of natural and physical assets are more likely to engage in agricultural markets and less likely to participate in non-farm activities. Secondary education tends to decrease participation in the agricultural sector while increasing engagement in non-farm activities. Several geographic variables like watershed location, altitude, and distance to rivers and cities are statistically significant determinants of livelihood strategies. The well-being associated with each livelihood strategy was estimated using least squares corrected for selection bias. Since participation in each livelihood is endogenously selected it was necessary to correct for selection. We use the Dubin- McFadden (1984) correction, based on the multinomial logit model. In our models of well-being few variables were statistically significant; this may be due to data limitations. Credit is statistically significant and has a positive effect on wellbeing. A similar positive effect is shown by education but the variable is not statistically significant. An odd result was found in the coefficient of irrigation access. This coefficient appears to decrease household well-being for those engaged in agricultural markets. This result is hard to explain, as we would expect that irrigation would be positively associated with well-being. The lack of access to water in irrigation systems in the region (noted by many respondents) might explain this negative effect. Most households that access irrigation do not have enough water, and access to irrigation does not provide the advantages that it might otherwise. The selection models were used to estimate the amount of well-being that households currently engaged in other livelihoods might receive if they selected a different livelihood. For example, what level of wellbeing would be attained by households currently engaged in agricultural markets if they instead engaged in non-farm activities. Results indicate that most households might achieve higher well-being if they engaged in non-farm activities. However households that want to engage in this sector require special skills or assets that are not easy to obtain; thus there are constraining barriers to diversification in the watershed. Several policy changes were simulated to determine their impacts on livelihood choice and household well-being. First a policy change that provides wider education to households in the region was assumed, with more education livelihood strategy selection moves towards the non-farm sector and away from agricultural wage work. These changes generate positive effects on household well-being. The second policy change was creating wider access to irrigation. This change moves livelihood strategies towards agricultural production and away from diversification and non-farm activities, and it had the effect of decreasing household well-being. This was unexpected but it is explained by the negative coefficient of irrigation access in the well-being model. These two policy changes were made to variables that are not statistically significant determinants in the well-being models but were highly significant determinants of livelihood strategies. The third and final policy was wider access to formal credit. Although credit is not a variable that affects the selection of livelihood strategies, it has an important effect on well-being. This policy change generates the highest increment in average well-being. However even though credit is available, if it is not used for productive purposes, it might represent an unnecessary cost for the households instead of being beneficial. / Master of Science / LTRA-3 (Watershed-based NRM for Small-scale Agriculture)

Abstract While mining has been a source of livelihood for many Basotho families since the 1970s, the 1980s, the 1990s, and the 2000s, have seen progressive decline in the number of migrant mine workers in South Africa’s mining companies. This decline has forced many families to adjust their livelihood activities to replace income lost from mine migrant wage labour. In view of various livelihood transition options, former mine migrant labour families have reverted to rural subsistence agricultural livelihoods as well as capitalized agricultural activities based within rural areas. These livelihood options are significantly influenced by investment options undertaken while still employed within the mining industry. Although these livelihood transitions have necessitated adjustment of expenditure patterns, these adjustments have in many instances not significantly altered gender based decision making practices and responsibilities of adult household members. In spite of limited income generation activities by husbands, in most families the husband continues to be seen as the head of the household, responsible for making decisions pertaining to investment and disposal of assets, expenditures related to ploughing of fields and caring for livestock, while the wife’s decision making activities are confined to matters pertaining to caring for the children, including their schooling.

Philosophiae Doctor - PhD / In Ghana, the number of people living in extreme poverty has reduced. Yet the poverty rate is currently 24.2 %, which is still high considering that Ghana is a lower middle-income country (Emmanuel, Frempong, Opareh & Rose, 2015; 35). In Ghana, the poor are classified in two groups: “ 1) … those who live above an upper line of GHC 1314.00 per day which is equivalent to US $ 1.83, and; 2) those within a lower poverty line of GHC 729.05 equivalent to US $ 1.03 a day…” (Emmanuel, Frempong, Opareh & Rose, 2015; 35). Those who “… live above the upper line of GHC 1314.00 are considered as non-poor, whereas those with a consumption expenditure equivalent or below GHC 729.05 a lower poverty line are in absolute poverty or living in extreme poverty…” (Emmanuel et al., 2015). In Ghana, Yaidoo and Kalaiah (2018) agree that microcredit programs are a neoliberal ploy that keep poor people in a perpetual state of poverty. Most microcredit beneficiaries are located in the rural areas and majority are the lowest income earners of the employed population. Microcredit should ordinarily have a broader range of empowerment services, yet the Ghana microcredit programs do not have this. Microcredit in Ghana has become a debt trap and its benefits to the poor is illusory (Yaidoo and Kalaiah, 2018). Most microcredits have high interest rates and seek to profit operations which had created a situation where microcredits are an additional burden to the people, impacting negatively on their livelihood (Yaidoo and Kalaiah, 2018). Further, Yaidoo and Kalaiah (2018) pinpointed that in Ghana, by observing the crippling consequences of debt burden on countries (such as Ghana who opted for the Highly Indebted Poor Country status in 2002), the world financial crisis in 2007/08, and cases of high default in repayment of debt, it would make sense to adopt a more impactful approach to microcredit. In that other role, players are needed to fill the gap with intervention resulting in improving people’s livelihood. This study aimed to empirically access the effect of microcredit on beneficiaries’ livelihood improvement. The study was conducted in four regions of Ghana, with the main objective to find out whether the Self-Supported Assistant Programme (SSAP) microcredit has improved the livelihood of its beneficiaries. The specific objectives of the study were to: i) evaluate the Beneficiaries Livelihoods Status as per their asset accumulation, voluntary saving, capabilities and frequency of loan repayment, and; ii) to estimate the effects of Demographic + Socioeconomic + Loan T&Cs Variables (financial training + loan interest rates + loan monitoring) on Beneficiaries Livelihoods Improvement (asset accumulation, voluntary saving, capabilities).