Dorothy Marchus Senesh Fellowship / The full-text of this thesis will be embargoed until further notice.

This anthropological, ethnographic study investigates the mobility patterns of Maritimers within Canada, with a focus on political economy. Specifically, I have analyzed the links between mobility, livelihood and identity within Miramichi, New Brunswick, as indicative of broader mobility patterns. This analysis is based on ethnographic data gathered over the course of two sessions of fieldwork in Miramichi itself, phone interviews with people who had moved away from the area, and extensive research of the historical regional political economy. I argue the historical and global context of the political economy and predominance of natural resource-based industries in the area are intricately related to mobility decisions. These contexts have also influenced understandings as to what work is available in the area and what is considered to be “good” work. Local understandings of livelihood are intricately linked to mobility decisions, which take many different and complex forms. I formulate a typology of the various mobility patterns which emerged from the data collected. Out-migration takes place largely for two reasons: for education and for work. Commuter migrants leave the community for work purposes, at varying distances, but maintain their household or home in Miramichi. In-migration takes place with the two main categories: retirees, many of whom lived in Miramichi during their youth and have “come back”; and educated people in-migrating for employment. This work also contributes to the greater understanding of the potential role communal ties, attachment to place and sentiments contribute to mobility decision-making. My analysis of social sentiments surrounding mobility in relation to notions of community, drawing on the concept of structures of feeling, lead to the formulation of the concept of nostalgic resilience. The nostalgic remembrances of the community past can lead to collective ideas that it was resilient and thus would persist, and even thrive, in the future. In arguing the Miramichi area has ongoing patterns and understandings of mobility, though, I am careful to note that there are negative lived realities in connection with these patterns. Nor are the nostalgic notions of community resilience without negative aspects.

This thesis investigates the ways in which the selling and utilizing of medicinal plant remedies in Asunción, Paraguay intersects with conceptualizations of Paraguayan cultural identity, traditional gendered knowledge systems, and with the socioeconomic realities of vendors and consumers. Engaging with anthropological theories of the political economy of health, cultural identity, and the socioeconomics of women workers in Latin America, it explores how the use of indigenous healthcare practices engages with notions of Paraguayan identity and traditional knowledge, including the transmission of gendered knowledge. Through data collected in semi-structured interviews with market vendors of medicinal plants in Asunción, this thesis investigates the connections between indigeneity and land, cultural and symbolic identity and food, and the livelihoods of medicinal plant vendors, in order to argue that the selling of these traditional plant medicines in the local markets of Asunción solidifies Paraguayan identity by providing daily affordable access to consumable symbols of “Paraguayanness.” / Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada

This study investigates livelihood patterns and gender arrangements during displacement. The main focus is on the experience of internally displaced persons at Al-Salam and Mayo displaced persons' camps at the outskirts of Khartoum, the capital of Sudan. The study uses an integrated gender conceptual framework, which encompasses Moser's triple role framework, practical and strategic gender interests and Kabeer's social relations framework, as well as agency and empowerment concepts and finds that, at places of origin, people were mainly dependent on farming and rearing of animals to earn a living. However, differences existed between regions. This way of livelihood was associated with 'traditional' gender arrangements, where men were the main breadwinners with no clear reproductive roles. By contrast, women's main roles were primarily reproductive. Then war, drought and famine affected people's livelihoods and led to displacement. At the displacement camps, more women than men were able to develop illegal and legal livelihood strategies. These new livelihood patterns upset the old gender patterns and led to emergence of new gender arrangements. Moreover, displaced women were able to build relationships within their gender and to form tajammu'at (women's groups). The NGOs (Non Governmental Organisations) which were active in the displacement camps tended to perceive the displaced as powerless victims, but in practice, displaced women had become social agents and were able to demonstrate empowerment, resilience, and ability to cope with displacement conditions

Masters of Art / Diversifying livelihoods has over the last two decades been identified as an important theme in the development work, particularly concerning the poverty reduction agenda. In the developing world, farm households, urged on by their survival instinct, diversify away from traditional subsistence agriculture to the production of high-value crops and at other times engage in off-farm and non-farm activities. This has become necessary due to the failures of agriculture to guarantee farm households sustainable livelihoods and improve their welfare. In sub-Saharan Africa, diversification is a vital instrument for reducing rural people’s risk to poverty. In recent years, however, diversification has been closely linked to food security. This is due to the fact that chronic food insecurity and its accompanying vulnerabilities continue to thwart poverty reduction efforts in the developing world. Paradoxically, whereas available statistics suggests that there is enough food to feed everyone, close to 900 million of the world’s population is still food insecure. By implication, the food security challenge hinge on ‘access’ rather than food availability. In sub-Saharan Africa and for that matter Northern Ghana, the phenomenon is quite pervasive, often affecting rural farm households. This signals one thing – a travesty to the existence of international human rights frameworks. Already, available empirical studies on the extent to which diversification amongst farm households impact on assuring household food security have revealed mixed results and are silent on the gender consequences. Using World Food Programme’s 2012 Comprehensive Food Security and Vulnerability Analysis survey conducted in northern Ghana and an ordinary least squares estimator, this study sought to examine how livelihood diversification contributes to household food security and subsequently validate its effect for male and female-headed farm households in the Bole district of the Northern region of Ghana. Results from the study revealed a significant positive relationship between livelihood diversification (the number of livelihood activities farm households engaged in) and household food security (household food consumption score). Whereas similar result was observed for male-headed households, that of female-headed households was insignificant even though positive. Following this, the study proposes a two-fold policy strategy for optimizing the impact of livelihood diversification on guaranteeing food security amongst farm households in the case study district in particular and northern Ghana in general. Firstly, support for boosting smallholder agriculture should be pursued rigorously, taking advantage of programmes such as the Savannah Plan for Accelerated Growth. Secondly, sustaining, up-scaling and re-orienting programmes such as Rural Enterprises Project and creating the policy milieu for farm households to explore local opportunities like eco-tourism should be mainstreamed, taking into account concerns of gender.

Magister Artium (Development Studies) - MA(DVS) / Food security is a development challenge in South Africa with 52% of the population being food insecure and 33% at risk of hunger. Inequalities and inefficient food distribution networks lead to inadequate access to sufficient and nutritional food. Poor communities experience bad access to good food and good access to bad food. Citizens have to be satisfied with cheap, low nutritious and high calorific food leading to malnutrition, and diseases – the hidden hunger. Being hungry is more than just a lack of food; it provokes despair, humiliation, sadness, low self-esteem – perceive as the genocide of the mind. Urban agriculture has been advocated as a livelihood strategy to improve food security. The Urban Rural Development Capacity Building Project (URDCBP), a non-profit organization (NPO), initiated three urban food garden projects within Langa, Cape Town to improve food security and create employment within that community. Ward 51, Langa is the study area of this thesis. The aim of this research is (1) to assess the contribution of urban food garden projects as a livelihood strategy for food security and the livelihood outcomes thereof; (2) to determine what other livelihood strategies and coping mechanisms poor communities adopt to be more food secure; and (3) to propose recommendations to improve and expand urban food gardens. The mixed-methodology research paradigm was employed. In the quantitative design, 83 randomly selected participants completed the self-administered closed-ended questionnaires. STATA 12.1 was used as a tool for the quantitative analysis. The descriptive statistics present the socio-demographic and economic trends of the households by the scores of each variable and the existence of any relationships between the variables. Conclusions were drawn from the sample data about the populations with inferential statistics. The qualitative data collection included two semi-structured interviews with government officials and two focus group discussions with 17 community members and 13 beneficiaries respectively. Purposive sampling was used in the qualitative research and emerging themes were identified in response to the research objective supporting the quantitative analysis. The results attest that 82% of the respondents indicated that the urban food gardens contribute to their household food security. However, low levels of food security are still experience within the community. With the Sustainable Livelihood Approach as theoretical framework, the study accentuates other livelihood outcomes of urban agriculture such as improving health, improving self-esteem and improving food security. Some of the coping strategies adopted include having willpower and skills, relying on family and friends for food and borrowing and dependency on social grants. The contribution of urban food gardens to food security is minimal in the Western Cape as only 2% of the households cultivate crops as their main source of food. In the study, 63% of the respondents would like to start their own food gardens and 14% would like to extend their urban food gardens. In both instances, land has been identified as the greatest concern. With the correct strategies and support, urban food gardens can be extended to make a larger contribution to the food security levels of the urban poor. Government intervention is much needed to fight hidden hunger, poverty and food security and this requires political commitment.

This case study analysis looks at four communities in Rift Valley, Kenya including Matisi, Moi’s Bridge, Sirende and Waitaluk. The research focuses on the role of markets in achieving food and livelihood security for the smallholders in these communities and smallholders’ perceptions of the roles of the Government of Kenya and other institutions in facilitating market access. The largest challenges to market participation, as reported by the smallholders in the studied communities, include low yields, weather inconsistencies, and lack of land. In terms of the Government of Kenya, many smallholders noted the benefits of participating in groups as they are subsequently offered training or field days and subsidies. A significant group of respondents did comment on their lack of interest in joining similar groups as they were seen as unstable or corrupt. The potential roles of formal and informal markets to increase food security were also analyzed. All smallholders wished to be participating in informal markets, but twenty-five percent were constrained by the lack of surplus produce. Similarly, although many reported their desire to be participants in formal markets lack of surplus produce, price fluctuations, inconsistent weather patterns, transportation costs and post- harvest losses or food waster were recognized as significant barriers. In order to mitigate these constraints, most smallholders recommended subsidies on inputs and the overall restructuring of markets. It is recommended that organizations and governments implement a livelihood diversification policy program or initiative to diversify and intensify agricultural activities and other non-agricultural activities. This case study analysis demonstrates the need to recognize the importance of local contexts, specifically Rift Valley as much of the research done in Kenya is found in Nairobi and surrounding areas and cautions labeling communities as food secure based on favorable conditions.

In the last century, many mobile pastoralists have transitioned to more sedentary lifestyles. Mobile people can be both pushed into a more settled existence by environmental or political forces, or pulled by new economic opportunities. While researchers have examined the causes and consequences of growing sedentarization, few contemporary studies have examined the patterns of settlement among mobile groups who are shifting to sedentary lifestyles and how these patterns may be related to socio-economic outcomes. This research examines settlement site selection by using GIS and remote sensing techniques to quantify settlement patterns in four Maasai villages in northern Tanzania, exploring the environmental and infrastructure correlates of settlement locations. A subset of these geographic variables is used with social survey data for 111 Maasai households in the study site to test the hypothesis that settlement location impacts livelihood strategies and economic outcomes by creating and constraining access to important resources and infrastructure. Landscape level evaluation of settlement pat-terns show that certain soil types limit occupation and the potential for agricultural expansion in 30% of the study area. Settlement density and existing agriculture are also clustered in certain parts of the landscape. The spatial models support the hypothesis that proximity to roads and village centers plays an important role in shaping overall settlement patterns. However, models that combine these factors with environmental and geophysical elements show improved explanatory performance, suggesting that competing factors are at play in influencing settlement patterns. Spatial models also indicate that agricultural development may be limiting land available for settlement in some parts of the study area. Results of the household level outcomes are more ambiguous, with few relationships between geographic variables and household livestock holdings, land under cultivation, annual income. Rather, these factors are influenced largely by demographic variables such as household size, age of the household head, and asset allocation. However, there appears to be less income diversity in households more distant from permanent water sources. / Master of Science / Around the world, many people who traditionally have moved from place to place on a seasonal or annual basis have become much more settled, often no longer moving at all. These formally mobile people can be both pushed into a more settled existence by environmental or political forces, or drawn by new opportunities presented by being more settled. While researchers have studied the reasons for these changes and how being more settled affects people, not many studies have examined the patterns of settlement of people who are becoming more settled or how these patterns may be related to how people do economically once they become settled. This study is focused on settlement patterns in four Maasai villages in northern Tanzania. The study used geographic information systems and data collected by satellites to map the location of Maasai households, called bomas, in the four villages, and the environmental characteristic of where people do and do not live on the landscape. This study also looked at measures of income and economic activity for 111 households to see if the location of a household on the landscape effects people’s economic choices and outcomes. This study found that certain environmental factors in the area do influence where people live, particularly soils types and climate, but did not find that where people live has strong influence on how they do economically.

The electricity sector around the world is significantly changing towards the adoption of cleaner energy sources and its implementation through distributed generation technologies. The need to expand rural electrification to reduce energy poverty and the trends in decentralizing power generation are becoming major drivers of change. In Mexico, there are very few comprehensive studies on energy use and its impact on rural livelihoods. Energy studies in the development literature tend to analyze livelihoods that do not have access to modern energy services, and do not take into account that many rural communities, although connected to the grid, still may be considered energy poor. This research presents findings of current livelihood conditions of three rural communities in the Mexican state of Chihuahua, in the context of livelihood diversification and energy poverty. This paper also presents a feasibility study for the development of a community energy model that will fulfill energy and vegetable intake requirements for each community analyzed. Results show that these communities can potentially improve their livelihood conditions through the implementation of what this research calls a Community Integrated Sustainable Energy (CISE) model by reducing energy poverty and food insecurity. By adopting a CISE model, communities will become healthier by becoming supporters of energy conservation and energy efficiency strategies. The adoption of this community energy model will also encourage climate change mitigation by increasing resilience to vulnerable communities through enhancing food and energy security. The aim of this research is to inform stakeholders (including policy makers, urban planners, and community members themselves) of the current status of Chihuahua's communities and to start a dialogue in Mexico about engaging in a community-led, clean energy project that would generate electricity for those communities while preserving rural livelihoods.

The main body of research within climate-change induced migration has focused on displacement migration. The "sinking islands" reference is often used to describe island states being in the forefront of climate change impacts, and their inhabitants at risk of becoming the first climate change refugees in history. The aim of this thesis is to understand what circumstances are needed for Kiribati’s ‘Migration with Dignity’ concept to enhance the adaptive capacity of livelihoods. By using the Sustainable Livelihood Approach this thesis examines what impacts climate change has on different aspects of livelihoods in Kiribati. This study uses a case study approach. Data has been collected through 14 semi-structured interviews during an eight weeks long minor field study on the capital atoll South Tarawa. While Kiribati faces many development challenges, being a least developed country with a rent-based economy, climate change puts additional strains on the country’s capacities to cope with the increasing monetization and urbanisation, and abilities to satisfy the growing population’s aspirations. The empirical evidence shows a need among the population to find education and skilled wage employment. Harmonisation between migration, development and adaptation policies can increase livelihoods’ economic conditions and abilities to cope with climate change-related stresses, especially for future generations.