Households in rural Ecuador face several challenges. One of them is the severe deprivation that reaches alarming percentages in the countryside. Unequal distribution and limited assets constrain households from improving their economic conditions. These factors induce households to overexploit natural resources. Poor households engage in a variety of livelihood strategies. Livelihood strategies are characterized by the allocation of assets (natural, physical, financial, public, social and human), income-earning activities (on farm, off farm), and outcomes (food, income, security). Together these determine the well-being attained by an individual or households. We used data collected by INIAP as part of the SANREM-CRSP project to identify livelihood strategies, their determinants, and well-being implications of adopting a particular livelihood. These data were from a comprehensive survey of 286 households collected during September and November, 2006. Livelihood strategies for the Chimbo watershed were identified using qualitative and quantitative methods. The methods provide similar results and identified four main livelihoods: households engaged in diversified activities, agricultural markets, non-farm activities, and agricultural wage work. Most households are engaged in agricultural markets followed by households in diversified activities. Households engaged in agricultural markets own higher amounts of natural and physical resources, while households engaged in non-farm activities have, on average, more human capital. Households participating in agricultural wage work are mainly from the down-stream watershed and posses less natural, physical and human assets. Factors influencing the selection of livelihood strategies were examined using a multinomial logit model. Variables such as access to irrigation, amount of farm surface and value of physical assets were statistically significant determinants of livelihood selection. Households with higher endowments of natural and physical assets are more likely to engage in agricultural markets and less likely to participate in non-farm activities. Secondary education tends to decrease participation in the agricultural sector while increasing engagement in non-farm activities. Several geographic variables like watershed location, altitude, and distance to rivers and cities are statistically significant determinants of livelihood strategies. The well-being associated with each livelihood strategy was estimated using least squares corrected for selection bias. Since participation in each livelihood is endogenously selected it was necessary to correct for selection. We use the Dubin- McFadden (1984) correction, based on the multinomial logit model. In our models of well-being few variables were statistically significant; this may be due to data limitations. Credit is statistically significant and has a positive effect on wellbeing. A similar positive effect is shown by education but the variable is not statistically significant. An odd result was found in the coefficient of irrigation access. This coefficient appears to decrease household well-being for those engaged in agricultural markets. This result is hard to explain, as we would expect that irrigation would be positively associated with well-being. The lack of access to water in irrigation systems in the region (noted by many respondents) might explain this negative effect. Most households that access irrigation do not have enough water, and access to irrigation does not provide the advantages that it might otherwise. The selection models were used to estimate the amount of well-being that households currently engaged in other livelihoods might receive if they selected a different livelihood. For example, what level of wellbeing would be attained by households currently engaged in agricultural markets if they instead engaged in non-farm activities. Results indicate that most households might achieve higher well-being if they engaged in non-farm activities. However households that want to engage in this sector require special skills or assets that are not easy to obtain; thus there are constraining barriers to diversification in the watershed. Several policy changes were simulated to determine their impacts on livelihood choice and household well-being. First a policy change that provides wider education to households in the region was assumed, with more education livelihood strategy selection moves towards the non-farm sector and away from agricultural wage work. These changes generate positive effects on household well-being. The second policy change was creating wider access to irrigation. This change moves livelihood strategies towards agricultural production and away from diversification and non-farm activities, and it had the effect of decreasing household well-being. This was unexpected but it is explained by the negative coefficient of irrigation access in the well-being model. These two policy changes were made to variables that are not statistically significant determinants in the well-being models but were highly significant determinants of livelihood strategies. The third and final policy was wider access to formal credit. Although credit is not a variable that affects the selection of livelihood strategies, it has an important effect on well-being. This policy change generates the highest increment in average well-being. However even though credit is available, if it is not used for productive purposes, it might represent an unnecessary cost for the households instead of being beneficial. / Master of Science / LTRA-3 (Watershed-based NRM for Small-scale Agriculture)

The study was designed to assess the impact of irrigation schemes on livelihood strategies and food security status of smallholder maize farmers in North West Province of South Africa and covered three districts of the North West Province namely: Dr Ngaka Modiri Molema district, Bojanala district and Dr Ruth Segomotsi Mompati district. In this study, a descriptive survey design was used and a sample of farmers was interviewed from the list of farmers obtained from the extension workers. The targeted group was male farmers in irrigation farming and those who farm within the radius of the irrigation scheme. A questionnaire was designed as the primary tool for data collection and the process of collecting data involved face to face interviews and group discussions. Data collected were coded and entered into Microsoft Excel and then transferred to Statistical Package for Social Scientists (SPSS). To analyse data, descriptive and inferential statistics were used. The results of multiple regression analysis of relationship between irrigation farming and livelihood strategies showed that the independent variables were significantly related to livelihood strategies of the farmers with an F value of 8.067, p< 0.05 and R value of 0. 788 showed that there was strong correlation between the independent variable and the household livelihood strategies. Significant determinants were marital status (t= 2.43), number of household (t= 5.41), nonfarm activity (t=1.73) and income (t= 6.59). The probit model was used to determine the influence of the socio-economic variables on household food security status. The model has a good fit and significant with two explanatory' variables being significant while eleven variables were insignificant. The significant variables were income and Land. The results of Forster Greer Thorbecke showed that about (1.5%) of the respondents are living below the threshold of (R9.2) per day, while the per capital income of respondents that are below the poverty line needed to be increased by (0.5%) to meet the level of poverty line. The results also showed severity of (0.1%), this implied that the gap of respondents from the poverty line is very small. / Thesis (M.Sc. (Agric Economics) North-West University, Mafikeng Campus, 2013

Magister Artium (Development Studies) - MA(DVS) / The informal economy has continued to increase in developing countries, giving jobs and income to marginalised groups, the majority being women. The rise of the informal sector is perpetuated by exclusionary social policies and the continued increase in unemployment. In Botswana, street food vending, the most visible form of the informal sector trading, has evolved to be a survivalist activity that women populate. Increasing poverty levels, gender inequalities, and high unemployment rates have resulted in poor urban women being vulnerable to the stresses and shocks caused by these factors. Street food vending is therefore pursued by women to mitigate their vulnerability. Additionally, street food vending allows for more flexible working hours, thus accommodating women’s community, household, and productive roles. Despite women’s substantial contribution to Botswana’s informal economy, the government has not done much to support them.

This study examines how people in dryland areas cope with food insecurity and adversities over time. It draws from the experience of the Gogo people living in Mvumi in the semiarid zone of central Tanzania, an area with a long history of food shortages. The study specifically examines the potential for dryland resources to sustain livelihoods. The study looks at the historical perspective of the problem in order to explore factors influencing the food situation in the area. It specifically investigates the role of local knowledge as a factor for adapting to dryland conditions by exploiting seasonality and local diversity. A detailed account is made of the coping strategies among three identified wealth groups in the area. Apart from their wealth levels, households in these wealth categories differ in how they mobilise and deal with labour in various seasons. Households in the well-off group have greater ability in mobilising and using external labour as well as accumulating and managing food surplus. The households in the intermediate group are flexible in utilising their own labour by performing various farm and non-farm activities according to their seasonalities. The households in the poor category sell their own labour and perform various farm and non-farm activities regardless of the season. It is clear from the study that different wealth groups differ in their ability to develop immediate coping into more pro-active livelihood strategies. The study winds up by assessing the potentials of the prominent land resource utilisation strategies in terms of economic, social and environmental perspectives.

Shandong Province, renowned as China’s greatest agricultural province, is dominated by smallholders growing rain-fed crops and vulnerable to severe weather shocks that can increase poverty rates. Weather index insurance, an innovative agricultural risk management product, may be an effective mechanism to address vulnerability to catastrophic weather risk in rural regions of China, including Shandong. This project evaluated current household livelihood and risk management strategies and farmer interest in weather index insurance. Data from 174 participants were collected using a methodology that included focus groups, questionnaires, and personal interviews. Despite limited access to formal financial services, Shandong farmers generally employ informal, well-diversified income strategies and rely on no-interest informal loans from community members to manage adverse impacts of natural disasters, such as drought. Households sometimes rely on reducing consumption as a risk coping strategy; however, unlike many regions of the world, Shandong farmers do not tend to sell livelihood assets to manage weather shocks. A majority of interviewed participants were interested in weather index insurance after they understood its basic concept; however, participants expressed concerns regarding basis risk and program implementation.

Thesis (M.A.)--Miami University, Dept. of Geography, 2007. / Title from first page of PDF document. Includes bibliographical references (p. 56-60).

京都大学 / 0048 / 新制・課程博士 / 博士(地球環境学) / 甲第21240号 / 地環博第176号 / 新制||地環||35(附属図書館) / 京都大学大学院地球環境学舎地球環境学専攻 / (主査)教授 岡﨑 健二, 准教授 小林 広英, 准教授 西前 出 / 学位規則第4条第1項該当 / Doctor of Global Environmental Studies / Kyoto University / DFAM

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Thesis (M.Dev. (Planning and Management)) -- University of Limpopo, 2023 / Local economic development was instituted as a strategy by the new democratic government to boost employment, local economic growth and reduce poverty at local level. This research investigated the impact of LED towards livelihood strategies in the communities of Botlokwa , Molemole Local Municipality. A normative and correlation research design was used in this study. Utilizing surveys, interviews, observation and a literature study, data was gathered. Three key informants and 97 community members in total took part in the research. The results showed that the LED has been used by Molemole Local Municipality. For the municipality, local economic development is crucial for several reasons, including tackling the local economic growth backlog, reducing unemployment and poverty, fostering community involvement in setting needs and goals, and enhancing integration and coordination. However, the execution of the LED ran into some difficulties, including, among others: a bad resource scarcity, unfinished projects, a poor level of community involvement and political interference. Additional verdict demonstrates that local government has improved the quality of amenities provided to recipient households and community members, particularly the provision of electricity, but that additional amenities, such as the delivery of water, creation of jobs, better living conditions, sanitary conditions and refuse removal are still insufficient. However, the community members evolved various coping mechanisms because of high prevalence of poverty and unemployment cut-off. The majority of community members voiced their displeasure with the delivery of programs intended to improve their living conditions. Respondents emphasized that municipality organized ward council meetings, IDP forums and consultation sessions to include communities in service delivery. Communities are still unhappy with their level of participation, though. Notwithstanding that municipality's general successes in providing basic amenities, there is still a backlog in service delivery and LED initiatives because of corrupt practices, a lack of resources, a capacity issue and incorrect project targeting. The results also demonstrate that the municipality's local economic growth has been greatly boosted by the adoption of the LED. All of the municipality's development planning and programs begin with the LED and IDP; as a result, municipality is able to develop and execute in agreement with planned requirements of the population. The municipality has been helped to offer essential services including water, electricity and sanitation thanks to the services and infrastructure projects that have been implemented. Additionally, the municipality has built roads and other infrastructure for the community's benefit. However, outstanding of inadequate execution of the LED, which was brought on by capability issues, limited public involvement and resource shortages, the municipality has not entirely completed the delivery of essential amenities. The report suggests that the municipality prioritize enhancing the supply of LED programs aimed at the community members' modes of subsistence as a cure. Additionally, it is advised that the municipality focus on enhancing community involvement, making effective usage of MIG and strengthening its ability for the development and execution of the LED.

Historicamente, a produção agropecuária na Bacia Hidrográfica do Alto Xingu esteve voltada aos grandes mercados. Nas últimas décadas, observa-se uma importante mudança no uso da terra, dada pela expansão do cultivo de grãos para exportação (como soja e milho) em detrimento das áreas de pastagens. A transição do modo de produção na região atinge inclusive os pequenos produtores e assentados rurais, a despeito da limitação de terras para a produção em grande escala e de sua vulnerabilidade socioeconômica. Especial atenção é dada aos assentados rurais devido às peculiaridades relacionadas à ocupação territorial, as quais acabam por diferenciar a dinâmica de uso da terra, o que afeta, sobretudo, os seus modos de vida. Diante desta problemática, este estudo objetiva identificar as diferentes variáveis que contribuem para o atual contexto de mudança no uso da terra em um assentamento rural localizado no município de Água Boa (MT) e como este fenômeno se relaciona com a manutenção ou não dos modos de vida dos assentados. Os dados foram coletados a partir de entrevistas abertas, não estruturadas e em profundidade em quarenta domicílios rurais. Resultados mostram que a mudança no uso da terra pela expansão do cultivo de grãos ocorre no assentamento da mesma forma que o observado na paisagem da região do Alto Xingu. A mudança do uso da terra no P.A. Jaraguá está vinculada a uma tentativa de superar limitações produtivas, como pastagens degradadas, dificuldades de acesso à água e a capital financeiro para investimentos na produção agropecuária. Como consequência, a área destinada ao cultivo de grãos tem substituído as pastagens e o arrendamento e a comercialização de lotes rurais têm sido estimulados para que este novo modo de produção seja viabilizado, pelo menos em curto prazo. Assim, a expansão da agricultura intensiva de grãos e os efeitos do aumento generalizado dos preços das terras agricultáveis são importantes drivers na tomada de decisão dos assentados sobre o uso da terra. Os resultados apontam que esse contexto é estruturado por (ao mesmo tempo em que também estrutura) novos modos de vida no assentamento, caracterizados por fenômenos socioeconômicos como o envelhecimento rural, a maior participação da aposentadoria e da prestação de serviços (agropecuários ou não, formais ou informais) na geração de renda família e o êxodo rural. / Historically, agricultural production in the basin of the Upper Xingu has been geared to large markets. In recent decades, there has been a major change in land use, given the expansion of grain crops export (such as soybeans and corn) to the detriment of pasture areas. The transition of mode of production in the region can even reach small farmers and rural settlers, despite land limitation for large-scale production and smallholders producers\' vulnerability. In this study, particular attention is given to rural settlers due to the peculiarities related to land occupation, which eventually differentiates the dynamics of land use, affecting substantially their way of life. Faced with this problem, this study aims to identify the different variables that contribute to the current context of change in land use in a rural settlement located in the municipality of Água Boa (MT) and how this phenomenon is related to the maintenance or not of settlers\' livelihood strategies. Data were collected from unstructured in-depth interviews in forty rural households. Results show that the change in land use for the expansion of grain cultivation occurs in the settlement the same way as observed in the landscape of the Upper Xingu region. The change in land use in P.A. Jaraguá might be related to an attempt to overcome production constraints such as degraded pastures, problems with water access and financial investments in agricultural production. As a result, pastures have been replaced by areas devoted to grain crops. Moreover, the lease and sale of rural lots have been stimulated in order to make this new mode of production possible, at least, in the short term. Thus, the expansion of intensive grain cultivation and the effects of increasing general prices of agricultural land are important drivers in the settlers\' decision making on land use. The results show that while this context structures new livelihood strategies in the settlement, it has also been structured by them. In addition, such context has been characterized by some socioeconomic phenomena such as rural aging, larger rates of retirement, rural exodus, and the provision of services in the generation of family income , whether it be agricultural or not, formal or informal.