Thesis (MPhil)--Stellenbosch University, 2015. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Stellenbosch University was approached to assist with developing a techno-financial model for an urban freshwater aquaculture system in Philippi, Cape Town. Rapidly growing urban areas are predominantly becoming concentrated zones for malnutrition and poverty which require attention. Having enough food to eat does not mean that a family is food secure, the problem is usually associated with the lack of access to nutritious food. Fish is seen as an extremely healthy food which has the potential to effectively support food security and alleviate malnutrition. Aquaculture is identified as a largely underdeveloped sector in South Africa. It is currently undergoing rapid transition, being promoted by government as an industry that has potential to develop and create jobs, provide food security and grow the South African economy. Aquaponics- a method to integrate aquaculture with growing crops in a symbiotic system is a highly resource efficient closed-integrated food producing technology which has the potential to benefit from South African biosecurity regulations and climate-geographic characteristics. It is viewed as an effective food production alternative to deal with the challenges of declining high quality freshwater resources and available arable land. Training and capacity building is important for the development of aquaponic technology. This study explores and identifies the advantages aquaponic technology development would have in South Africa. The study has reviewed and assessed the fundamental principles for aquaculture production and management required for aquaponic systems development and management. A practical case study identifies the daily challenges and design parameters of aquaponic systems. The study is concluded with a techno-financial project proposal which shows how aquaponic systems can be planned. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Universiteit Stellenbosch was genader om 'n tegno-finansiele model to ontwikkel vir 'n stedelike akwakultuur plaas in Philippi, Kaapstad. The tempo waarteen die stedelike areas groei ontwikkel kommerwekkende uitdagings soos wanvoeding en armoede. In hierdie studie is vis geindentifiseer as 'n uiters voedsame aanvulling in die dieet van Suid Afrikaners. Akwakultuur is grootliks agter in terme van ontwikkeling. Dit word beskou as 'n sektor wat groot potensiaal inhou vir Suid Afrika se eknomiese groei, werkskepping en voedselsekuriteit. Akwaponika is die hersirkulerende integrasie van akwakultuur en hidroponika. Akwaponika hou groot voordele in terme van Suid Afrika se biosekuriteit regulasies and geografiese eienskappe en is 'n effektiewe manier om gebruikte akwakultuur te suiwer. Opleiding en beplanning word gesien as 'n fundamentele benadering tot suskesvolle akwaponika ontwikkeling. Hierdie studie bestudeer die Suid Afrikaanse omgewing en potensiaal vir akwaponika ontwikkeling. Die fundamentele beginsels van akwakultuur en hidroponika bestuur en produksie is saamgesit wat beskou word as die aanbevele manier om akwaponika te bestuur. 'n Praktiese gevallestudie toon die daaglikse uitdagings aan en gee raad oor daaglikse bestuur van akwaponika stelsels. Die studie word afgesluit met 'n tegno-finansiele model wat wys hoe om 'n akwaponika sisteem te beplan.

This study evaluated the contribution of urban agriculture (community gardens) to food security in Emfuleni Local Municipality in Gauteng province. The objectives were to determine the socio-demographic characteristics of farmers in urban community gardens; followed by determining contribution of urban community gardens to food security with specific reference to food availability, food accessibility, food utilisation and food stability; evaluating the factors that influence food utilisation of the farmers in urban community gardens and lastly conducting SWOT analysis of urban community gardens. The sample size of 254 farmers was randomly selected from 418 farmers located in 30 urban community gardens in Emfuleni Local Municipality. Furthermore, the study adopted purposive sampling for deliberately selecting one key informant from 30 urban community gardens that participated in the study. Quantitative research approach was employed using a survey design. Data was collected through face-to-face interviews using a semi-structured survey questionnaire. Quantitative data was analysed by the use of Statistical Program for Social Sciences (SPSS) Version 23.0. The analysis included both descriptive (mean, standard deviation, standard error or mean and others) and inferential statistics and table frequency. Qualitative data was analysed using code and themes; and converted into frequencies. The study revealed that there were more females (71.3%) that participated in the community gardens than males (28.7%); only 23.2% of youth (<35 years) participated in community gardens. Majority (59.4%) of respondents spoke Sesotho while majority (53.5%) were not married (single). The main source of income of most (78.7%) respondents was farming activities precisely urban community gardens. The study found that community gardens contribute to food availability with regards to providing freshly produce vegetables, high consumption of vegetables and ensured that families of the beneficiaries ate sufficient vegetables produced from the gardens. Although there is uncertainty among some of the respondents that vegetables produced were not sufficient, only few respondents were concerned. Majority (96.7%) of community gardens produced vegetables for selling and consumption. It was therefore found that, in relation to food accessibility, an average of 47% did not experience anxiety, uncertainty and had consumed sufficient quantities of vegetables from the community gardens. With regards to food utilisation, majority of the respondents were consuming vegetables as a relish whereas others consumed vegetables for various reason such salad, health reasons and others as presented in the results section. On vegetable consumption pattern, it is concluded that gender, age group, level of education, participation period in community gardens, family size, number of family member working, number of working hours in the community garden per day, number of day working in the community garden per month and annual income from community garden influenced vegetables consumption pattern of the respondents (utilisation) in the study area. Coping strategies which were mostly adopted by the respondents to ensure food stability were: reducing vegetable intake to ensure that children ate enough, purchasing of vegetables on credit, reducing vegetables in the daily meals and borrowing money to buy vegetables. Some of the challenges that hindered vegetable production in urban community gardens were theft of garden tools and crops produce, lack of fencing and eating of vegetables by stray animals. / Agriculture, Animal Health and Human Ecology / M. Sc. (Agriculture)

South Africa and other developing countries are grappling with high levels of poverty as a result of slow to negligible rural development. Irrigation development is one essential component that can be used to address the challenges faced by smallholder farmers in rural areas. In the President‟s “State of the Nation Address” in 2011, the President of South Africa outlined measures to reduce hunger and poverty in communal areas through enhanced government‟s expenditures in rural infrastructure developments, especially for such amenities as irrigation and roads, with a view to promoting food security. The broad objective of this study is to assess livelihood strategies and opportunities with regard to farming in Qamata area of Intsika Yethu Local Municipality. The stratified random sampling method was applied in order to choose a sample of 70 household that were interviewed by means of semi-structured questionnaires. Out of these, 53 belonged to the irrigation project and 17 farmers were non-irrigation farmers. The results show that women play an active role in agriculture. The Multiple Regression model was used to assess the relative importance of different livelihood strategies adopted by both irrigation and non-irrigation farmers in improving household food security and welfare in Qamata. More specifically, the study assessed the impact of different livelihood strategies on production of butternut, goats, maize and poultry (Chicken) in Qamata. The results show increased agricultural production, crop diversification and higher incomes from irrigation farming as compared to dry land farming. Irrigation farming has enabled many households to diversify their sources of income and therefore include activities and enterprises that contribute to enhanced household welfare. The study showed that household size is crucial in crop production, followed by gender of the household head. The government and research institutes need to come up with programmes to train people on ways to produce crop and livestock products more efficiently.

Although food insecurity is said to have decreased in South Africa in the past years particularly at the national level, however, at household level a substantial proportion of households remains at risk of food insecurity and are experiencing hunger particularly in the Eastern Cape Province were poverty is rife. Food insecurity in the Eastern Cape Province is attributed to the fact that agriculture, the mainstay of the rural economy is no longer given the value that it should carry, does not help the situation. Despite much research on food (in) security in South Africa, the link between poverty and household food security is not at all clear. This study seeks to fill this gap specifically by looking at the linkages in the main between food security and poverty especially in the community level. Amidst the various programmes and initiatives that are in place in South Africa, there is continual prevalence of food insecurity facing the majority of South African households. The major aim of this study was therefore to examine the impact of one of these programmes, the Zanyokwe irrigation scheme in enhancing food security not only for the farmers but also for the surrounding communities. This study adopted a qualitative approach to research. The study unearthed that even though Zanyokwe irrigation scheme has played an indispensable role in enhancing food security for the smallholder farmers and the community at large challenges such as market challenges, road infrastructural issues, land tenure issues, lack of proper coordination amongst the farmers as well as farmer empowerment are a major limitation to the growth of the irrigation scheme and the farmers. Thus, the study recommended that farmer support services, training, agriculture subsidies, improved infrastructure as well as addressing market related challenges will go a long way in reducing the plight of the Zanyokwe farmers as well as enhancing food security

Most smallholder farmers in South Africa are characterized by poor resources such as land, labour and capital while they play an important role in poverty alleviation especially in poor rural areas. Smallholder farmers are increasingly recognized because of their contribution to household food security. The world markets are increasingly being integrated due to globalization and liberalization. As a result, smallholder farmers are facing increasing market competition, not only in international markets but in local markets as well. However, smallholder farmers often face a number of barriers to accessing these markets arising in part from the tightening of food safety and quality standards requiring compliance with phytosanitary and sanitary standards and growing power of supply chain integration. Furthermore, the viability of these smallholder producers is constrained by institutional obstacles which include lack of access to information, high marketing and transaction costs and low quality and lack of critical volume in the absence of bulking up arrangements, etc. These barriers have contributed to the exclusion of smallholder/small-scale farmers from formal markets. In order to address these obstacles and speed up the pace of agrarian reform many support schemes (farmer support programmes) are now being designed to specifically address market access and value chain issues through unique co-innovation arrangements to improve the farmer’s access to profitable international chains. A number of farmer support programmes (FSP) have been implemented in South Africa to reduce the risk of a lack of capacity and a lack of economic and/or financial experience in smallholder farms. Intervention measures have been instituted to these smallholder farmers to assist them to move out of poverty through agricultural production. The aim of this study was to understand the roles played by farmer support programmes in addressing income and welfare levels and sustainability of smallholder farmers in South Africa. Eighty nine (89) farmers were interviewed for this study and almost half (49%) of them received support from various organizations while 51% of the sampled farmers did not receive any support. The study was designed to compare the two groups between the treated and control group to assess the impact of these programmes.Using a Tobit and Propensity Score Matching technique, potential diffusion effects were eliminated between farmers supported by Farmer Support Programmes and farmers that did not belong to support services. The latter was selected from comparable communities with no agricultural support services. Findings from the Tobit regression and propensity score matching are consistent across the two methods, suggesting that being a member of any agricultural support programme has a significant positive impact on income and welfare of smallholder farmers.Farmer Support Programmes and collective marketing activities such as the collection and sale of members’ products appear to have a significant and positive impact on smallholder welfare of those farmers engaged in them. In the second analysis the study tested the types of arrangements that farmers would adopt to market their produce. From the results it was established that those farmers who were supported by institutional arrangements or FSP had better access to markets than those farmers who operated as individuals. Marginal effects are used to show the degree to which farmers chose a particular marketing channel or institutional arrangement that these farmers take when trying to access better paying markets. Then the final analysis is on factors that determine the extent to which collective action contribute to farmers’ income and market access. A number of variables (age, distance to the market, region the farmers are located) were evaluated using the multinomial regression model. Empirical results suggest that among South African cooperatives, those established in KwaZulu-Natal and partly in the Eastern Cape and upon the voluntary initiative of farmers are more sustainable and have access to better paying markets both locally and internationally than the other areas. The results also show that NGO-supported cooperatives have a longer life span than Government controlled cooperatives.

Ethnic food markets and restaurants are the main source of immigrants’ traditional foods in South Africa. Despite this, the actual availability and accessibility of ethnic foods from the ethnic food markets and restaurants has not been investigated. Furthermore, factors that influence the role of ethnic foods in the diets of immigrants, like perceptions of Sub-Saharan Immigrants towards South Africa food culture, and the safety of ethnic foods have not been established. Although a number of studies have been conducted on the identification of microbial hazards of cooked food in the informal sector, none have been conducted on ethnic foods of Sub-Saharan Immigrants. Aim and objectives The aim of this study was to assess the availability and accessibility of Sub-Saharan African immigrants’ traditional food from ethnic food markets, shops and restaurants, establish immigrants’ perceptions towards South African’s food culture, and determine predictors of contamination of selected cooked food sold in the ethnic food markets, and restaurants. From this aim, eight objectives were formulated as follows: (i) describe the immigrants’ perceptions towards South Africa’s food culture, (ii) investigate the contribution of the ethnic food markets on the dietary patterns of immigrants, (iii) investigate the availability, and accessibility of the ethnic foods available in the ethnic food markets, and restaurants, (iv) document coping strategies adopted by immigrants when faced with shortage of their traditional foods or ingredients in South Africa (v) identify factors associated with a move away from their ethnic foods and adoption of South African foods, (vi) investigate the microbiological quality of selected cooked foods found in the ethnic food markets and restaurants, and (vii) investigate predictors of contamination of ethnic foods bought from the restaurants and markets. A cross-sectional research design using a mixed methods approach was adopted to achieve the objectives of this study. The mixed method employed three instruments, namely: questionnaire, checklist, and laboratory microbial analysis. The study was conducted in Tshwane and Johannesburg metropolitan municipalities. The study focused on two study populations: (i) immigrant households from West, East and Central Africa regions, and ii) entrepreneurs selling Sub-Saharan ethnic ready-to-eat (RTE) foods. The snowball sampling method was adopted to sample both study populations. A total of one hundred and ninety four (n=194) women and forty (n=40) entrepreneurs who met the inclusion criteria and agreed to participate were included in the study. A checklist was employed to assess restaurants and vending sites. Two samples of RTE ethnic foods were collected from each entrepreneur and submitted to the microbiology laboratory at the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR). Data obtained from the questionnaire, checklist and microbial analysis were analysed, and descriptive statistics were presented as tables and figures. Multivariable and binary logistic regression models were fitted to the data to assess predictors of adoption and contamination respectively. Results Ethnic foods still featured prominently in the diets of immigrants, with only 7.7 % (n=15) indicating that they strictly followed a South African diet. Ethnic food markets are the main sources of ethnic foods for immigrants living in Gauteng. Efforts to maintain ethnic diets by Sub-Saharan immigrants resident in South Africa are hindered by factors such as unaffordability (39.2%;n=76) and unavailability (25.3%; n=49) of their ethnic foods. Meanwhile, relying on less preferred food (38.7%; n=75) and replacing unavailable ingredients with similar ingredients (37.6%; n=73%) were identified as two main coping strategies that are adopted by immigrants when facing unavailability of their traditional food ingredients. Four patterns of dietary acculturation were identified, namely, strict continuity with traditional foods (21.6%; n=42), very limited adoption (21.1 %; n=39), limited adoption (50.5%; n=98) and complete adoption (7.7%; n=15) of South African foods. The following were the most common food items that the respondents tended to adopt: pap (84.5%; n=164); fried potato chips (43.8%; n=85); cold drinks (42.8%; n=83); fast foods (37.6%; n=73); sphathlo (30.9%; n=60); and vetkoek (30.4%; n=59). Four factors that were associated with adoption of South African foods included:  spending R2500-R3499 (OR 3.34; p=0.017) and 3500-4500 (OR 3.99; p=0.030) on food,  residing in the country between 3-6 years (OR 5.16; p=0.001),  earning between 5000-10 000 (OR 0.52; p=0.040) and >R11 000 (OR 0.380; p=0.057), and  being in part-time/temporary employment (OR 5.85; p=0.025). The majority of the ethnic food entrepreneurs were West Africans (70%; n=28), belonging mainly to the 30-49 years old age group (88%; n=35). Over 35%% (n=14) of the entrepreneurs indicated that they had completed high school education, while 42.5% (n=17) had tertiary education. The majority (80%, n= 34) of vendors of ethnic foods did not have a certificate in food handling or hygiene practices. The majority (95%, n=38) of entrepreneurs operated in permanent structures with ceilings and walls. A majority (95%; n=38) also had access to tap water and flushing toilets. However, ownership of appliances such as thermometers (0%, n=0), microwaves (55%, n=22), and freezers (37.5%, n=15) was very low. There was also low adherence with regards to the following aspects: wearing of protective clothing such as caps (40%; n=24), apron (62.5%, n=25) and gloves (0%, n=0); not wearing jewellery (50%; n=20); keeping fingernails short and clean; and proper reheating of food. Samples contaminated with total viable counts above the threshold of satisfactory counts (<10⁵ CFU/g) was very high (71.3% , n=57). Over twenty percent (22.5%; n=18) of the food samples had unsatisfactory levels of coliforms (>10 ³ CFU/g), and 17.5% (n=14) had unsatisfactory levels (>3 CFU/g) of E. coli. Salmonella was observed in only 3.8 % (n=3) food samples. Being new in business (OR=0.010, p=.033), owning a freezer (OR .477; p= .052), not owning a microwave (OR .013, p=.074), and reheating per serving (OR .187, p=.048) were identified as significant drivers of contamination. Conclusion In the two metropolitans that were investigated only 40 vendors of ethnic foods could be identified. This number is too low to be able to supply the whole immigrant community with ethnic foods. Thus their role as a contributor to household food security is limited. As a result, although the majority of immigrants attempt to preserve their traditional diets, high ethnic food prices and unavailability of traditional ingredients forces them into bicultural eating patterns. Although bicultural eating patterns are supposed to protect against food insecurity, the adoption of unhealthy dietary habits and could render them vulnerable to food insecurity. Lack of knowledge of South Africa foods results in poor food choices. In the long run these unhealthy eating patterns could have negative implications choices. In the long run these unhealthy eating patterns could have negative implications on the nutritional health of immigrants and the health system of South Africa. Therefore, studies to identify foods with similar taste and nutritious ingredients could aid prevention of obesity and lifestyle diseases and inform culture-specific nutrition education programmes. The high number of entrepreneurs without training on food hygiene and handling practices limits the role of the ethnic restaurants in the food security of immigrants living in Gauteng, and food quality is thus compromised. Therefore, there is a need for targeted training programmes which cater for the unique needs of the ethnic entrepreneurs to enable them to play a meaningful role in ensuring that immigrants who want to maintain their food culture are food secure. These programmes should also address the poor handling and hygiene practices that were observed in this study. This could be done by emphasising the World Health Organization’s (WHO) five keys to safer food. Results of the food contamination indicate that entrepreneurs are able to produce safe food, (as supported by only moderate contamination levels of coliforms and E. coli, which also suggests low risk of environmental and enteric contaminants). However, if these concerns are not addressed immediately by proper training and monitoring, they could further compromise the role played by ethnic food markets in food security. Training and monitoring programmes should place more emphasis on the four factors that were identified as drivers of contamination / Agriculture, Animal Health and Human Ecology / Ph. D. (Agriculture)

Promoting household food security for many poor people globally and more so in Sub-Saharan Africa continues to be a challenge today. Ever rising poverty levels, an influx in the prevalence of the HIV/ AIDS pandemic, reduced rainfall accompanied by changing climatic patterns, environmental bankruptcy, the complexities associated with urbanization, globalisation as well as technology shift in the agricultural sector and capitalistic market economies all play a role in the food security debate. This research has highlighted some of the factors that influence the food economy and related these to the household food security of poor informal settlement dwellers. Achieving household food security for poor urban households requires an integrated approach in terms of poverty eradication as well as deliberate efforts with regards to food production and distribution within a framework of ecological integrity, with an aim of empowering the poor and ensuring that their household food security is guaranteed. / Development Studies / Thesis (M.A. (Development Studies))

Food insecurity in South Africa is not due to a shortage of food in the country but to inadequate access to food by poor groups of individuals and households. Many people, who lost their jobs due to retrenchments or can’t find suitable jobs for various reasons, revert to street trading or other activities of the informal economy as a survival strategy. There is limited information on understanding the food security status and strategies used by street traders and their households in Durban. This study aims to understand the extent of food insecurity among street traders in terms of their access to food, the quality of food consumed and the strategies they used to cope with food shortage. A mixed research method composed of a survey, face to face interviews and observations were conducted with a sample population of 120. The findings of this study confirmed that the sector was dominated by semi-literate people who generated R2000 per month which was to be shared with an average of 4 members of their respective households. Consequently, the majority of street traders’ households lived below the poverty line, thus food insecure. Limited income compromised the quality of food consumed: energy dense food dominated their food; hence 59.2% suffered from communicable lifestyle diseases. The study recommended more studies in this field, the extension of the Isipingo census to the entire municipality and the decriminalization of street trading by the municipality in order to improve the food security situation of street traders. / Geography / M.A. (Human Ecology)

In many countries, the authorities face extreme difficulties in monitoring and ensuring that food sold on the street is safe, that is, fit for human consumption. This is particularly the case in urban areas, where people buy food on the street because it is readily available and relatively inexpensive. The objective of this study was to determine the food safety knowledge and microbial hazard awareness of street food consumers, and to assess the bacteriological quality of selected ready-to-eat foods sold by street vendors in the Johannesburg municipality. A cross-sectional survey study was conducted and a total of 402 respondents who buy and consume street-vended foods were randomly selected at various street food vending locations. A total of 315 various street-vended samples were purchased from randomly selected street food vendors at different vending locations in Johannesburg metropolis, in order to investigate the bacteriological quality of street-vended foods. Results of the bacteriological analysis revealed that total aerobic counts ranged from 0.3*102 - 0.4*105 cfu/g in cereals and grain-based foods; 0.4*102 - 0.5*105 cfu/g in meat-, dairy- and fish-based foods and 0.7*102 - 0.9*104 cfu/g in fruit- and vegetable-based foods. None of the food samples tested positive for Salmonella spp and Staphylococcus aureus. Results of the survey showed that the majority of respondents were black males younger than 35 years. Individuals of different gender, race, level of education and monthly income groups significantly (p<0.05) differed in their responses regarding the frequency of purchasing and confidence in the safety of street-vended food. Better taste followed closely by affordability and accessibility were the most cited reasons for purchasing street-vended food / Life and Consumer Sciences / M. Sc. (Life Sciences)

Wild foods are an integral component of the household food basket, yet their quantified contribution to food security relative to other sources in the context of HIV/AIDS, climate change and variability remains underexplored. This study was carried out in Willowvale and Lesseyton which are rural communities in the Eastern Cape province of South Africa. Willowvale is a relatively remote, medium-rainfall coastal community, while Lesseyton is a peri-urban low rainfall inland community. Qualitative and quantitative methods were used to collect data from 78 HIV/AIDS afflicted households with 329 individuals and 87 non-afflicted households with 365 individuals in the two study sites. Households were visited quarterly over 12 months to assess food acquisition methods, dietary intake and quality, and levels of food security, and to determine strategies employed by households to cope with droughts. The wild foods investigated were wild meat, wild birds, wild fish, wild mushrooms, wild leafy vegetables and wild fruits. Diets were moderately well-balanced and limited in variety, with cereal items contributing 52 % to total calorie intake. Mid-upper arm circumference measurements showed that all respondents were adequately nourished. The bulk of the food consumed by households was purchased, with supplementation from own production, wild vegetables and wild fruits. In Willowvale, wild vegetables comprised 46 % of overall vegetable consumption for afflicted households and 32 % for non-afflicted households, while own fruit production comprised 100 % of fruit consumption. In Lesseyton, wild vegetables comprised only 6 % and 4 % of vegetable consumption for afflicted and non-afflicted households, while wild fruit comprised 63 % and 41 % for afflicted and non-afflicted households. More than 80 % of respondents from both afflicted and non-afflicted households had sufficient daily kilocalories, although the majority of afflicted households felt they were food insecure and sometimes collected wild foods as one of their multiple coping strategies. Hunting and gathering of wild foods was associated with site, household affliction status, gender, age and season. More than 80 % of respondents ate wild vegetables and said they were more drought tolerant than conventional vegetables, making them the most consumed wild food and approximately 16 % of respondents ate wild birds, making them the least consumed wild food. Approximately 14 % of respondents from afflicted households in Willowvale sold wild fish, whilst 34 % of respondents from afflicted households and 7 % from non-afflicted households sold wild fruits in Lesseyton. Strategies adopted by households to cope with droughts were different between the two study sites, and households in Willowvale used a wider range of strategies. Given the devastating effects of HIV/AIDS coupled with the drawbacks of climate change and variability on food security, wild foods represent a free and easy way for vulnerable households to obtain food.