Footwear is manufactured from foot forms or moulds known as “lasts”, based on certain measurements of the feet for whom the footwear is intended. Measurement or morphometric studies of the foot in other populations reveal differences due to genetic, ethnic and/or racial differences. Most last measurements used in the South African (SA) footwear industry are based on the British (UK) standard and assume an average fit for the entire population. No three dimensional (3-D) measurement data existed on the SA female foot that was statistically representative of all major ethnic groups of the female population. This was needed to test the current applicability of the UK standard, in light of previous findings that 80% of a random sample of South African women reported foot pathology ascribed to ill-fitting footwear. Further, this would address a suggestion that foot measurements might be non-linear in grading between small size individuals (size 3, 4 and 5) and large size individuals (size 8, 9 and 10). This study essentially consists of three parts. First, a preliminary study undertook to find or create a suitable and affordable method of 3-D input, not only to obtain morphometric measurements but also to capture the topography of the weight bearing foot for future research and development of contoured foot beds for industry. Second, a comparison of specific measurements from a UK size 4 last and the corresponding foot measurements from a sampled population of size 4 foot length was performed, in order to determine what percentage of women would fit the footwear derived from such a last. Third, a comparison of mean values was carried out between data from participants of all sizes scaled down arithmetically to UK size 4 length, and data from actual size 4 participants, in order to explore whether the size 4, occurring as it does near the lower end of the size range, could still be representative of the proportional measurements for sizes 3 to 10. The mean values of this second scaled size 4 group were also compared to the UK size 4 last measurements. The first part of the study utilized the resources of collaborative partners to locate 3-D hardware and software. Experimentation with compounds isolated a suitable impression material and platform designs were conceived to facilitate the data capture method developed. The invented method was awarded patent rights. The second part of the study used the method developed from the preliminary study to conduct measurements. 3-D Laser scanning in combination with manual measurement for validation, by convenience sampling of each of 510 active women aged 21 to 69, of differing ethnic origins, in two major urban regions, yielded 13 foot measurements of each participant. Last measurements were captured by means of comparable laser scanning of a UK size 4 last. In the second part of the study, eight of the comparable measurements for size 4 feet and the last were compared for accuracy of fit. The third part of the study compared mean values between data from non size 4 participants scaled down arithmetically to UK size 4 length, and data from actual size 4 participants. Part one of the study successfully developed and patented a new, portable, low-cost method which can be used to measure either a last or foot in 3-D for any footwear consumer group. Results of the metric study in part two indicate that four dimensions of the industry standard last do not fit the corresponding four dimensions of the average foot measured, namely forefoot girth, forefoot width, heel width and minor foot length (heel to fifth toe). More than 75.6% of participants from every ethnic group displayed tread girths larger than that of the last. These findings have serious implications since deficit fit in any of these four dimensions impacts negatively on foot health and function within the shoe. As such, results could not support the null hypothesis that the shoe fits the foot. Results in the third part of the study yielded similar mean values for measurement parameters between the two groups of data, indicating that the mean measurements for a size 4, even though it is placed near the lower end of the size range, can be representative of the mean scaleable measurements for sizes 3 to 10 but only for the length grade. In conclusion, the study developed and patented a new method for a scientific process to record the weight bearing foot in 3-D. It produced the first national database of 3-D measurements of a female population on the African continent. Outcomes included new prototypes, innovation and technology transfer to industry. The study prompted the development of new footwear by the manufacturing industry partner, utilizing information gained from the study. The study has given impetus to continuing research on the African foot. / Mrs. Saramarie Eagleton Doctor Bernhard Zipfel

Cheng, Yuk Lap. / Thesis (M.Phil.)--Chinese University of Hong Kong, 2007. / Includes bibliographical references (leaves 64-67). / Abstracts in English and Chinese; appendix and questionnaire also in Chinese. / ACKNOWLEDGEMENT --- p.I / ABSTRACT --- p.II / TABLE OF CONTENT --- p.V / LIST OF FIGURES --- p.VII / LIST OF TABLES --- p.VIII / Chapter I --- INTRODUCTION --- p.1 / Background --- p.1 / Statement of Problem --- p.3 / Hypothesis --- p.3 / Significance of Study --- p.4 / Theoretical Contribution --- p.4 / Practical Contribution --- p.4 / Operational Definition --- p.5 / Chapter II --- REVIEW OF LITERATURE --- p.7 / Problem of poor fitting --- p.7 / Common foot problem --- p.10 / Definition of fit --- p.11 / Recommendation of shoe fit --- p.13 / Sizing --- p.13 / Pressure distribution --- p.14 / Subjective fit --- p.15 / Footwear Comfort --- p.15 / Chapter III --- METHODOLOGY --- p.18 / Design --- p.18 / Subject --- p.18 / Instrumentation --- p.18 / Fit questionnaire --- p.18 / Foot scanner --- p.19 / Pressure sensors --- p.19 / Running shoes --- p.20 / Shoe lasts --- p.20 / Procedure --- p.21 / Foot scanning --- p.22 / Fit questionnaire --- p.24 / Set up --- p.24 / Reliability test --- p.25 / Pressure measurement --- p.25 / Data Reduction --- p.29 / Foot scanning --- p.29 / Fit questionnaire --- p.29 / Video --- p.29 / Pressure distribution --- p.30 / Data Analysis --- p.30 / Chapter IV --- RESULT --- p.32 / Subject Detail --- p.32 / Questionnaire --- p.32 / Fit Rating --- p.37 / Size Difference --- p.39 / Pressure Distribution --- p.43 / Regression --- p.46 / Chapter V --- DISCUSSION --- p.52 / Subjective fit rating --- p.52 / Reliability of the fit questionnaire --- p.52 / Fit rating --- p.53 / Size --- p.54 / Foot shape --- p.54 / Dimensional Difference --- p.54 / Correlation with subjective fit --- p.55 / Pressure --- p.58 / Dimensional Difference and Pressure --- p.59 / Subjective fit and objective measures --- p.60 / Limitation --- p.61 / Future Direction --- p.62 / Chapter VI --- CONCLUSION --- p.63 / Chapter VII --- REFERENCE --- p.64 / APPENDIX / Appendix A -Explanation of study --- p.68 / Appendix B - Informed consent --- p.69 / Appendix C - Footwear fit questionnaire --- p.70 / Appendix D -Explanations of fit questionnaire --- p.72 / Appendix E - Anthropometric information of the subjects --- p.73 / Appendix F - Fit rating --- p.74 / Appendix G - Foot dimensions of the subjects --- p.89 / Appendix H - Foot - last size difference of each subject --- p.90 / Appendix I - Guilford's suggested interpretation for value of r --- p.92

Foot posture is an important characteristic that can affect kinematics, plantar loading, and injury risk. Arch height is one common aspect of foot posture, and it is estimated that about 60% of the population has normal arches while 40% of the population is either pes planus or pes cavus. It is important to be able to accurately and reliably assess foot posture characteristics in order to propose interventions that could prevent injuries due to abnormal foot alignment. However, despite multiple classification metrics, many of the devices that are commonly used for foot posture measurements are not economically feasible for smaller clinics or research labs. Therefore, the first purpose of this study was to develop an affordable device to measure different foot posture characteristics. The Foot Posture Measurement System was developed and can measure total foot length, truncated foot length, foot width, dorsum height, and navicular height. This system was shown to have good to excellent validity (ICC = 0.908-0.994) and repeatability (ICC = 0.867-0.996) when compared to a 3D scanner. This device was then used in the second portion of this study, which evaluated the effects of ankle braces on plantar loading patterns in individuals with different foot postures. Contact area, peak force, force-time integral, and center of pressure were evaluated during a walk, run, and cut while the participant was unbraced, wearing a lace-up stabilizer brace, and wearing a semi-rigid brace. It was demonstrated that arch height did affect the maximum plantar forces during all tasks (p=0.001-0.047), as hypothesized based on previous studies. Additionally, this study found that ankle braces affected contact area (p=0.001-0.0014), maximum force (p<0.001 – p=0.043), and force-time integral (p<0.001 – p=0.015) during the walk, run, and cut. This is a novel finding and points to the potential for an impact of ankle braces on plantar loading during athletic activities, independent of foot type. / Master of Science / Foot posture is an important characteristic that can affect daily life and contribute to the risk of injury. Arch height is one common aspect of foot posture, and it is estimated that about 60% of the population has normal arches while 40% of the population is either high arched or low arched/flat footed. It is important to be able to accurately and reliably assess foot posture characteristics in order to propose interventions that could prevent injuries due to abnormal foot alignment. However, despite multiple classification metrics, many of the devices that are commonly used for foot posture measurements are not economically feasible for smaller clinics or research labs. Therefore, the first purpose of this study was to develop an affordable device to measure different foot posture characteristics. The Foot Posture Measurement System was developed and can measure five different length, width, and height characteristics of the foot. This system was shown to be valid when compared to a 3D scanner and repeatable between days. This device was then used in the second portion of this study, which evaluated the effects of ankle braces on individuals with different foot postures. Four different force and pressure variables were examined within the foot during a walk, run, and cut while the participant was unbraced, wearing a lace-up stabilizer brace, and wearing a semi-rigid brace. It was shown that arch height did alter plantar loading measures during all tasks, as hypothesized based on previous studies. Additionally, this study found that ankle braces affected all variables during the walk, run, and cut. This is a novel finding and points to the potential for an impact of ankle braces on plantar loading during athletic activities, independent of foot type.