The U.S. Intelligence Community is undergoing an "Analytic Transformation" designed to improve the quality of intelligence analysis. Information foraging theory, a human analogue to foraging theory that finds humans to be time- and risk-sensitive information seekers, is particularly relevant to this effort because it addresses two basic challenges that continually confront intelligence analysts: information overload and severe time constraints. The present investigation marks the first empirical foray into testing a theory of intelligence foraging. Two experiments using computer simulations tested the effects of temporal barriers on expert (intelligence analysts) and novice (undergraduates) search, consumption, and patch residence behaviors across three fictional databases (i.e., patch) containing information on the cause of a battleship explosion. The original hypotheses were not confirmed; handling time and travel time manipulations (in the form of different download delays associated with each database) did not significantly affect their database navigation patterns or their assessment of the battleship explosion. Unexpectedly, the specific content of each patch appeared to control their search and consumption behavior rather than the handling or travel time associated with each patch; the content effect mimicked the delay effect that was initially predicted. In the face of high stakes and realistic information constraints, the present study hints at an evolved information forager - one who is still content-driven in spite of severe time constraints. In light of the present findings and in service to our national security interests, future research would benefit from a deeper dive into information foraging situations with these new types of constraints. / Psychology

Soil nutrients are often heterogeneously distributed in space and time at scales relevant to individual plants, and plants can respond by selectively proliferating their roots within nutrient-rich patches. However, many environmental factors may increase or decrease the degree of root proliferation by plants. I explored how soil fertility, nitrogen (N) or phosphorus (P) limitation, and soil oxygen availability affected root system response to nutrient heterogeneity in forested wetland ecosystems of southeastern United States. Fine root biomass was not correlated with soil nutrient availability within wetland ecosystems, but was related to ecosystem-scale fertility. Root systems generally did not respond to P-rich patches in both floodplain (nutrient-rich) and depressional swamps (nutrient-poor) swamps, but results were inconclusive because the growth medium (sand) potentially hindered root growth. In floodplain forests, roots proliferated into N-rich patches but not P-rich patches, even though litterfall N:P ratios were > 15, which suggested that these ecosystems were P-limited. The combination of nutrient and oxygen heterogeneity affected root proliferation and biomass growth of three common floodplain forest species (Liquidambar styraciflua, Fraxinus pennsylvanica, and Nyssa aquatica) in a potted study, which was related to species' flood tolerance. My results suggest that the environmental context of plants can affect roots system response to nutrient heterogeneity in forested wetland ecosystems and highlights the need for field studies that investigate this phenomenon. Learning how environmental conditions affect plant response to nutrient heterogeneity at a fine-scale will provide better predictions of nutrient cycling, plant competition and succession, and forest productivity, which are important factors that determine carbon sequestration and timber production. / Ph. D.

With a population estimate of 99 pairs, the Madagascar fish-eagle (Haliaeetus vociferoides) is one of the rarest birds of prey in the world. I investigated the ecological requirements of the Madagascar fish-eagle in 1994 and 1995 to help determine management action to prevent its extinction. I investigated fish-eagle foraging ecology in 1996 to determine its prey preference and whether fish abundance and availability affect fish-eagle foraging rates and foraging success. Madagascar fish-eagle nest and perch trees were taller, broader, had more unobstructed branches, and had a greater arc of accessibility than unused trees. Perch trees also were deciduous more often and had a narrower growth form than unused trees. Nest sites had more shoreline perch trees than unused sites. Lakes occupied by fish-eagles were deeper and clearer, and had more shoreline perch trees, more fish, a greater total fish weight, and more fish species than unoccupied lakes. I developed logistic regression models to predict the probability of Madagascar fish-eagle use based on the measured habitat variables. Nest and perch tree models included tree height. The nest site model included number of shoreline perches. Lake models included number of shoreline perches and either number of fish, total fish weight, or number of fish species. These models can be used to predict fish-eagle habitat use with > 70% accuracy. Introduced tilapia, Oreochromis spp. and Tilapia spp., made up the majority of both the gill net (66.3%) and fish-eagle catch (64.7%) in similar proportion, which suggests that the fish-eagle is an opportunistic predator. Replacement of native fish species by exotics, thus, probably has not been detrimental to the island's fish-eagle population. Male fish-eagle foraging success was positively correlated with number of fish, total fish weight, and number of fish species, which suggests that declines in the fish population could adversely affect the fish-eagle population. The results of this study indicate that Madagascar fish-eagles require bodies of water with large shoreline trees and an ample fish population. I recommend greater protection of aquatic habitats, monitoring and management of freshwater fish populations, and education of local people in sustainable tree harvesting practices. / Ph. D.

Resources in the soil are heterogeneously distributed. We know that plant species differ in their root responses to nutrient patches and that these differences in foraging can influence plant competition. However, most studies of root-resource interactions overlook the potential top-down influence of root herbivores. While root herbivores can influence plant community structure, the extent to which they influence ecosystem-scale factors such as net primary production is unclear. In addition, little is known regarding root herbivore foraging behaviors and, more importantly, whether these foraging behaviors can actually influence species interactions. In this dissertation, I present a conceptual model of soil-root-herbivore interactions in which soil resource heterogeneity structures both root dynamics and the abundance and influence of root herbivores. I conducted two field and one greenhouse experiment examining this proposed model. The dissertation includes an introductory chapter (Chapter 1), a field study examining root responses to manipulations of soil fertility and root herbivory (Chapter 2), a greenhouse study that used plant species responses to heterogeneity to develop predictions about the role of root herbivores in mixed-species neighborhoods (Chapter 3), and a field study of planted communities examining soil fertility and fauna effects on above- and belowground structure and function (Chapter 4). In all cases, there were significant effects of root herbivores on community structure and components of net primary production. Resource distribution had a strong effect in studies conducted in sandy, nutrient-poor soils (Chapter 2 and 3), but had a reduced effect in the study conducted at Kentland Farm in loamy soils (Chapter 4). Interactions between resource availability and root herbivory were common. These results support the theory that the potential benefit of resource-rich patches may be constrained by root herbivores. This research complements recent findings that demonstrate other potential costs of species foraging behaviors (such as exposure to soil anoxia and increased drought stress), as well as potential effects of root herbivores and other soil fauna on plant diversity. / Ph. D.

Relationships between nutrient heterogeneity, root foraging behavior and short-term competitive interactions were investigated for six species native to southeastern USA. Monoculture, two- and six-species garden plots were established and fertilized to create spatially homogeneous or heterogeneous nutrient conditions. After 3.5 months, root proliferation in rich patches (precision) and aboveground biomass response to heterogeneity were assessed in monocultures, and competitive outcomes (aboveground biomass) were determined from mixed-species plots. In monoculture plots, two species were relatively precise foragers, but no species showed significant aboveground biomass response to nutrient treatment. Correlations between precision and aboveground biomass were weak (-0.40 < r < 0.17). In two-species plots, interspecific competition was influenced by soil heterogeneity in two of six cases tested (P < 0.05), and precision was the behavior most correlated with competitive success. In six-species plots, spatial pattern of nutrients had no influence on aboveground growth or competition. Results suggest that heterogeneity influences competition, but the influence is context-specific and generally small. Precision may be the foraging behavior that most influences interspecific interactions. / Ph. D.

The western honey bee, Apis mellifera, provide invaluable economic and ecological services while simultaneously facing stressors that may compromise their health. For example, agricultural landscapes, such as a row crop system, are necessary for our food production, but they may cause poor nutrition in bees from a lack of available nectar and pollen. Row crops are largely wind or self-pollinated, and while previous studies have focused on the impact of bees to row crops, fewer studies have examined the reciprocal relationship of the row crops on honey bees. Here we investigated the foraging dynamics of honey bees in a row crop environment. We decoded, mapped, and analyzed 3460 waggle dances, which communicate the location of where bees collected food, for two full foraging seasons (April – October, 2018-2019), and concurrently collected pollen from returning foragers. We found that bees foraged mostly locally (< 2 km) throughout the season. The shortest communicated median distances (0.48 and 0.32 km), indicating abundant food availability, occurred in July in both years, which was when our row crops were in full bloom. We determined, by plotting and analyzing the communicated locations, that most mid-summer foraging was in row crops, with at least 40% of honey bee recruitment dances indicating either cotton or soybean fields. Bees also largely foraged for nectar when visiting row crop fields, only returning to the hive with Glycine spp. pollen, and foraging on nearby trees and weeds for pollen. Foragers were exposed to thirty-five different pesticides throughout the foraging season, based on pesticide residues in collected pollen. Overall, row crop fields are contributing a surprising majority of mid-summer forage to honey bee hives and suggests that similar agricultural landscapes may also provide abundant, mid-summer forage opportunities for honey bees, however, at the risk of pesticide exposure. / Master of Science in Life Sciences / Declines in the number of honey bee hives have been observed in the United States and western Europe throughout the last century, driven by environmental stressors such as poor nutrition caused by anthropogenic landscape change and pesticide exposure. Agricultural landscapes, for example, contain monocultures and often necessitate pesticide use, which may be detrimental to bee health. Because of these effects, it is necessary to understand how honey bees forage in these systems and what potential health risks they face. We investigated honey bees foraging dynamics in a row crop environment, observing honey bee waggle dance recruitment behavior and gathering forager-collected pollen to better understand when, where, and what honey bees forage on throughout the season (April – October). We found that bees largely foraged near the hive throughout the season, indicating that sufficient resources were available, particularly in July when crops were in full bloom. During full bloom bees considerably foraged in cotton and soybean fields. We found that bees collected minimal row crop pollen, apart from soybean pollen, largely foraging on trees and flowering weeds for pollen. Through pollen foraging bees were exposed to thirty-five pesticides, ranging in toxicity and mode of action. Overall, honey bees foraging in a row crop system foraged substantially in row crop fields during the mid-summer. Row crops systems may be able to provide abundant forage during the mid-summer, but could come at the risk of exposure to pesticides.

Foraging activity and food preferences of odorous house ants (Tapinoma sessile (SAY)) were investigated in both the field and laboratory. Foraging activity was examined in the field from April to September 2001 by attracting T. sessile to feeding stations containing a 20% sucrose solution. Ant foraging activity was recorded over a twenty-four hour period along with ambient temperature to examine possible correlations with ant activity patterns. Results indicate that foraging activity may be influenced by both time and temperature. In April and May when temperatures dropped below approximately 10 C, little or no foraging activity was observed. However, in the summer when temperatures were generally higher, foraging activity was greater during relatively cooler times of the day and night. Under laboratory conditions, T. sessile was attracted to feeding stations and foraged throughout the day and night at a constant temperature of approximately 25 C. Evaluations of seasonal food preferences using carbohydrate, protein and lipid samples were also conducted throughout the spring and summer. Results indicated no seasonal shifts in food preference in foraging ants; T sessile consistently preferred sugar and protein rewards over lipids. Macronutrient choice assays were preformed on T. sessile to evaluate specific food preferences. Several different carbohydrates, proteins, lipids and salts were tested in both liquid and gel formulation. Results indicated significantly greater consumption of sucrose solution at a concentration of approximately 20% compared with other sugars tested (fructose, glucose, trehalose and maltose). In addition, strong feeding responses were observed to both casein hydrolysate and lactalbumin hydrolysate at a 5% concentration. The addition of NaCl to 15% sucrose gel samples also enhanced feeding responses. Lipids were generally ignored by T. sessile and in most cases decreased consumption of the sample. Various amino acids did not enhance feeding responses and were similar to water. / Master of Science

Major research studies have provided support for information scent based usability evaluation and have increased its parent theory's (Information Foraging theory) credibility in the HCI community. These studies have, directly and indirectly, found significant correlations between good information scent and good usability. We would like to investigate its application to less-studied platforms, such as web pages on PDAs and cell phones. The theory itself is not device specific and it implicitly assumes that information scent's importance is universal. However, all studies on the practical application of Information Foraging theory have been conducted with desktop computers. We would like to examine what role information scent plays in interfaces on mobile devices that are limited in usable screen space. For this project, we performed a controlled study with 28 participants on the BBC News web site and its PDA-optimized version. Various usability and information scent related indicators were measured and compared across devices. Contrary to our expectations, we did not find any statistically significant differences between the information scent indicators of the Desktop and PDA sessions and the paths across the devices were highly correlated. / Master of Science

Bumble bees (bombus spp.) are significant pollinators of many plants, and are particularly attracted to mass-flowering crops such as Oilseed Rape (Brassica Napus), which they cross-pollinate. B. napus is both wind and insect-pollinated, and whilst it has been found that wind is its most significant pollen vector, the influence of bumble bee pollination could be non-trivial when bee densities are large. Therefore, the assessment of pollinator-mediated cross-pollination events could be important when considering containment strategies of genetically modified (GM) crops, such as GM varieties of B. napus, but requires a landscape-scale understanding of pollinator movements, which is currently unknown for bumble bees. I developed an in silico model, entitled HARVEST, which simulates the foraging and consequential inter-patch movements of bumble bees. The model is based on principles from Reinforcement Learning and Individual Based Modelling, and uses a Linear Operator Learning Rule to guide agent learning. The model incoproates one or more agents, or bees, that learn by ‘trial-and-error’, with a gradual preference shown for patch choice actions that provide increased rewards. To validate the model, I verified its ability to replicate certain iconic patterns of bee-mediated gene flow, and assessed its accuracy in predicting the flower visits and inter-patch movement frequencies of real bees in a small-scale system. The model successfully replicated the iconic patterns, but failed to accurately predict outputs from the real system. It did, however, qualitatively replicate the high levels of inter-patch traffic found in the real small-scale system, and its quantitative discrepancies could likely be explained by inaccurate parameterisations. I also found that HARVEST bees are extremely efficient foragers, which agrees with evidence of powerful learning capabilities and risk-aversion in real bumble bees. When applying the model to the landscape-scale, HARVEST predicts that overall levels of bee-mediated gene flow are extremely low. Nonetheless, I identified an effective containment strategy in which a ‘shield’ comprised of sacrificed crops is placed between GM and conventional crop populations. This strategy could be useful for scenarios in which the tolerance for GM seed set is exceptionally low.

Existing research on the foraging ecology and breeding biology of blue tits (Cyanistes caeruleus) and great tits(Parus major) has mainly concentrated on populations in woodland. However increasing urbanisation means much of the suitable tit habitat is represented by fragmented areas, not large woodlands, and little is known about factors that may affect reproductive success in urban environments. Using General and Generalised Linear Models this study compared reproductive performance in four habitat types with differing levels of habitat modification: the Cambridge University Botanic Garden (CUBG) with an abundance of non-native vegetation and structural fragmentation, two marginal sites with native scrubby vegetation and structural fragmentation and small fragments and large fragments of native woodland. Compositional analysis was used in a study focused on how foraging blue tits used the heterogeneous habitat of the CUBG. Additionally frequency tests were used to compare foraging preferences and foraging behaviours of both species in the CUBG. Productivity was poor in the CUBG compared to all of the other habitats, with great tits appearing to do worse than blue tits, rearing lower quality chicks (significantly lower mean mass than in other habitats). Within the CUBG, positive relationships were found between the abundance of native trees and shrubs and breeding success for both blue tits and great tits. A positive relationship was found between breeding success in blue tits and the abundance of Quercus and Betula. However, habitat and year interactions showed that habitat and reproductive relationships were complicated by annual variation. The two species differed in their foraging preferences in the CUBG; blue tits were observed feeding in native deciduous trees significantly more than in non-native species and had a preference for birch trees over other taxa. Great tits however showed no strong preferences for any of the habitat types. With regards to foraging behaviours, great tits used a wider range of foraging heights and different foraging locations and capture techniques than blue tits. Blue tits were observed‘hanging’ from twigs more frequently, and appeared to be more effective at foraging in the wider variety of plants available in the heterogeneous vegetation of the garden. The data presented in this thesis suggest that blue tits have adopted a better foraging strategy by preferentially choosing native deciduous trees over the abundance of non-natives available in the CUBG. However, despite the apparent better foraging strategy of blue tits, reproductive performance of both species is poor in this urban garden compared to marginal sites and woodland. Urbanisation and the associated loss of optimal tit habitat are likely to continue. It is therefore important to offset urbanisation by the addition of appropriate foraging habitats that are likely to improve reproductive success, such as native trees and shrubs.