Forensic archaeology applies archaeological methods to crime scenes which provides better documentation and a more complete recovery of skeletal remains. It is important to have a recovery protocol for burned vehicle scenarios that will help to recover more skeletal remains and aid in the investigative process. White-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) remains and pig (Sus scrofa) mandibles were burned in two recycled vehicles. Recovery protocols outlined by previous researchers and screening methods were tested in this study to determine the most effective recovery method to be used in a burned vehicle scenario. Screening methods that were tested include wet screening, dry screening, 1/4-inch mesh, and 1.0 mm mesh screen sizes. A univariate ANOVA test was conducted using the total mass percentages of skeletal remains recovered from each separate screening method. The p value from this statistical test was 0.938 and was not significant. The results demonstrated that no individual screening method was significantly more effective than another screening method even though more skeletal remains were recovered using wet screening and 1.0 mm mesh screen size. The recovery of identified skeletal remains was tested by comparing the total mass percentage of identified skeletal remains recovered between wet and dry screening methods. The p value for this univariate ANOVA test was 0.421. Neither wet or dry screening methods were statistically more effective when recovering identifiable skeletal fragments during the comparative process, but wet screening overall recovered more identifiable skeletal remains. Based on the results of this study, it is recommended that recovery protocols used in a burned vehicle scenario include using personal protective equipment to prevent inhaling toxins from the burned vehicles. Further, the vehicle should be split into zones for recovery to facilitate proper documentation of the skeletal remains. The large burned car debris should be removed from above and around the immediate area of the skeletal remains. Larger identifiable skeletal remains should be recovered first, placed in labeled bags, and placed in a container for transportation to the laboratory. Smaller skeletal remains and ash matrix should be recovered using a small soft bristle brush and small make-up brushes, and the ash should be swept into a dust pan for removal from the vehicle. The ash matrix should be placed in a large bucket and covered with a lid when excavation is complete so that the bucket can be safely transported to an area where the remains can be screened. Screening methods should include the use of wet screening and a smaller screen size than 1/4-inch, such as 1/8-inch or 1.0 mm mesh screen sizes.

Drug use is a major burden in Cape Town, South Africa, and at times may be fatal. Individuals suspected to have demised from drug intoxication are referred for medico-legal investigation, in order for cause of death to be determined. Sometimes, it remains ambiguous as to whether the drug intoxication was suicidal or accidental, even after a full post-mortem examination. Literature has shown that molecular analysis of genetic variants in genes encoding for drug metabolising enzymes may provide insight into the manner of death. At Cape Town’s Salt River Mortuary, numerous toxicological-related cases yield ambiguous results, which may potentially be resolved with molecular analyses. However, no optimised molecular assay to sequence drug metabolising enzymes currently exists in a local context. The aim of this project was to design and optimise a molecular-based assay to sequence the drug metabolising enzyme, CYP2D6. Subsequent to primer design, exons in CYP2D6 were amplified and sequenced. The optimised assay was then applied to DNA from two decedents suspected to have demised from drug intoxication. Following a toxicological drug screen, certain drugs metabolised by CYP2D6 were reported. The assay revealed genetic variants within CYP2D6; both individuals were heterozygous for 138insT, rendering one allele in each individual defective. While one decedent also exhibited variants with normal and unknown haplotypes, the other decedent was homozygous for *17 (decreased functionality), overall making the former an intermediate (altered) or extensive (normal) metaboliser and the latter, an intermediate metaboliser of specific drugs. Quantitative toxicological results were unavailable; consequently, the contribution of the metabolism phenotype on death in these cases could not be established. However, the genetic variants, combined with the presence of these drugs in each case, suggests altered drug metabolism, which should be investigated further and interpreted within each case context. These findings would also be beneficial to the decedents’ living relatives, who may also carry these variants. Overall, this study demonstrates the value of molecular analyses in forensic investigations of toxicological-related fatalities, and lays the foundation for additional future research, particularly since the molecular assay has now been successfully optimised.

Background Weighing of organs is a necessary part of every autopsy and provides objective evidence of pathology, especially in forensic cases where histology is not always taken. Reference ranges must be locally applicable, accurate, and regularly defined. Aims The primary aim was generation of post-mortem organ weight reference ranges for use in South African mortuaries. Secondary aims were analysing factors influencing organ weights, and comparison of data to those from international populations. Methods A retrospective study was conducted using autopsy reports from the Salt River medico-legal mortuary in Cape Town, South Africa between 2013 and 2016. Disproportionate randomized stratified sampling was used to obtain sufficient cases from males and females; White, Coloured, and African racial groups; and decedents both older and younger than 50 years. Observations from 1262 decedents >18 years old dying traumatic on-scene deaths were recorded, excluding organs with macroscopic evidence of disease or destructive injury. The organs considered were the brain, heart, both lungs, liver, spleen, and both kidneys, and the variables collected were sex, race, age, height and body weight. This study was approved by the University of Cape Town Human Research Ethics Committee. Results Sampled decedents are described and excluded organs accounted for. Descriptive statistics are presented for each of the stratified subsamples. After assumption testing, multiple linear regression models are built, including interaction terms. Factors influencing organ weights are discussed and results compared to selected studies. Ideal organ weight reference ranges are proposed, based on 95% inclusion data from decedents aged 18-35 years with normal body mass indices. A smartphone application is offered, which calculates prediction intervals for individual decedents based on the multiple linear regression models. Conclusion This is the first study on post-mortem organ weights in South Africa, and despite limitations it provides useful locally derived population estimates.

Complete suicides and parasuicides are a major cause of death and disability in South Africa and the rest of the world. The epidemiology, pathology and toxicology of complete suicides were investigated in this study. All the complete suicide cases, which were presented to Salt River Medicolegal Laboratory over a period of one year (1 January 1997 - 31 December 1997), were analysed. The candidate personally conducted 148 of the alleged 180 suicide cases that presented in this time period (82%). The candidate did all the follow up investigations herself. The main findings were: 1. The male to female ratio was 5: 1. (131: 26) 2. Shooting and hanging were the most commonly used methods. 3. The racial distribution of violent deaths showed a high rate of suicides amongst the White population. 4. Suicides accounted for the Joss of young lives, the average age being 37,8 years. The mean age was 34 years. 5. Most victims committed suicide in and around their own homes. 6. The majority did not leave suicide notes. 7. Psychiatric disorders, poor health, arguments with close family members and friends, financial problems and long-standing relationship problems were the most common reasons for the suicides. 8. Suicides by prisoners accounted for 3,8% of the study (6 cases). 9. Two cases of double suicide (group suicide) were identified. 10. Five cases of homicide-suicide were identified in the study material. 11. One case of an attempted suicide by means of a high-speed motor vehicle accident, followed by the successful suicide by other means, was identified.

Salt River Mortuary (SRM), Cape Town, investigates ~3500 cases of unnatural death annually, with an apparent burden of unclaimed bodies. A retrospective review was first undertaken to assess the number of these individuals who remained unidentified. Medicolegal records were examined (2010-2017), and ~9% of cases remained unidentified each year. DNA analysis was performed in 23.5% of cases. At the time of this study, unidentified bodies were in storage for up to two years, pending pauper burial. DNA profiling assists forensic human identification, and the analysis of markers on the Y-chromosome has particular importance in kinship analysis. To evaluate the statistical probability of DNA profiles matching between samples, reference data from the background population is required. Such data for the Y-chromosome is lacking for some populations groups in South Africa (SA). As such this study aimed to generate Y-chromosome data relevant to SA. Second to this, the obtainability of DNA profiles from unidentified decedents at SRM, prior to pauper burial, was investigated. Biological samples were obtained from 653 SA individuals (living: n=480; deceased: n=173) belonging to four major population groups. Following internal validation, samples were processed using the Promega PowerPlex® Y23 System. A cohort-representative subset of DNA profiles were also generated using the forensically validated Next Generation Sequencing (NGS) assay on the MiSeq FGx™ system, to assess concordance. Statistical analysis was performed using Arlequin and STATA packages. Full DNA profiles (i.e. haplotypes) were obtained from 626 samples (African: n=183; Coloured: n=170; Indian/Asian: n=111; White: n=162), with 599 haplotypes being unique to a single individual. Following optimisation, haplotypes were obtained from >99% and 85% of living and deceased individuals, respectively. Haplotypes were generated from numerous individuals stored for over one year, and DNA profile quality was not associated with time between death declaration and sample collection. NGS results confirmed the presence of one micro-variant and resolved allele-calling in five instances where the capillary electrophoresis assay was incorrect. Thus, concordance was observed in 98% of loci reviewed. Overall, haplotypes were successfully obtained for four different SA population groups, including refrigerated decedents, even 887 days after death declaration. This demonstrates that DNA profiling can be successful for decedents and efforts should be made to store DNA profiles for the possibility of familial searching and identification, even after burial. Identification of the multitude of unclaimed bodies at forensic facilities nationwide holds immense value for living family members, and provides closure for the acceptance of death and life thereafter.

Violence against women is an important cause of morbidity and mortality in South Africa and indeed the of world. Women and men are equal and must have equal guarantees of economic, social, civil, political cultural rights. Women who are denied basic right security cannot participate equally in society. Violence denies this basic human right. This study is descriptive and a retrospective analysis of rape survivors in Johannesburg from 1992, a prospective analysis of homicide victims from Cape from mid-1996 to end 1998. The results have been analysed into demographic variables and compared to trends from the rest of the world. The epidemiology and pattern of injury violent crimes have specifically targeted. The main findings were: 1. incidence of rape in Johannesburg in 1992 was 165 per 100 000 women. 2. Rape in Johannesburg is seasonable and occur mainly in young African women, by strangers. 3. Approximately one third of survivors sustain non-genital as well as genital injury. 4. Most injuries can be classified as minor or moderate and comprise contusion, abrasions and lacerations. 5. The incidence of rape homicide in Town is 7.2 per 100 000 women, which represents a fatal sexual rate 1.23%. 6. The majority of rape homicide victims were coloured women in the group 26 to 45 years. 6. Of those murdered by people known to them, a current or ex-intimate partner murdered 18.6%. 7. 98.3% of rape victims had non-genital injury, and 55.9% had evidence of genital injury. 9. Most rape homicides have evidence of mechanical asphyxiation included in the mechanism of death. 10. The body areas most targeted by perpetrators in sexual assault are the head, neck and upper limbs. 11. The majority of the minor genital injuries comprise abrasions and lacerations to the posterior fourchette and introitus.

Includes bibliographical references / Deaths in police custody are a global phenomenon which continues to beset policing services worldwide. Research into these deaths has provided insight into the complexity of detention and led to the institution of preventative strategies which have seen a reduction in mortality internationally. An improved understanding of the South African detention milieu may similarly assist in reducing the mortality burden in this country. This study retrospectively reviewed deaths in custody in the Cape Town Western Metropole between 2000 and 2009, with the aim of identifying local, modifiable factors to aid in death prevention. Sixty two (62) cases were reviewed. Males predominated (90.3%) in the sample, with the racial profile mirroring that of the general population. The median age of the detainees was 30.5 years. Unnatural causes of death accounted for 82% (n=51) of cases, with suicidal hanging the commonest cause (n=40). Items of clothing were used as ligatures in 80% of hangings, with gate and window bars the most common points of suspension. Time in detention averaged 863 minutes for the sample. Clinical signs of intoxication at the time of arrest was identified as a statistically significant determinant (p=0.02) of a shorter detention time (446 minutes). Ten (10) detainees were identified as either injured at the time of arrest or physically ill during detention, of which 9 succumbed to their injuries or disease. Only three of these detainees received medical attention. These findings highlight the need for urgent review of local police cell architecture to ensure an environment conducive to safe detention, with particular attention to reducing potential points of suspension for hangings. Further, the healthcare needs of detainees must be prioritised through effective training of police personnel with regard to the assessment and management of ill detainees, particularly those intoxicated at the time of arrest.

Individualization of skeletal remains is a critical component of archaeological and forensic investigations. Bone growth at tendon insertion sites, or enthesophytes, have been researched as individualizing musculoskeletal stress markers and were previously shown to relate to age, body mass, and possibly occupation; however, no such research exists regarding ancestral correlations. Research shows that African American bone density is significantly higher than other ancestral groups; thus, it is hypothesized that African Americans have a higher tendency for additional bone growth in relation to age, body mass, and occupation. To test this hypothesis, 230 individuals from the William M. Bass Donated Skeletal Collection at the University of Tennessee, Knoxville, were analyzed following previously established and revised standards for scoring enthesophyte development in the upper and lower limbs. The individuals were of European American (n=176) and African American (n=54) ancestry, and were scored at random for enthesophyte development before reviewing demographic information. Each tendon insertion site was compared to the demographic information and ancestral origin of the individuals. The results confirm the expected link between enthesophyte development with age and body mass, along with a possibility that African Americans display greater bone development at tendon insertion sites. Further, upper limb scores displayed stronger correlations with demographic information than the lower limb, providing a better focus for future research. The correlation of enthesophyte development with demographic information may aid in anthropological investigations, providing an additional method for individualization and identification of biomechanical stresses in skeletal remains.

The identification of individuals is the primary goal in any forensic investigation. To facilitate an identification, a biological profile (age, sex, ancestry, stature) for the unknown individual is created by a forensic anthropologist. For adult individuals, the aspects of the biological profile are largely straightforward. For subadult individuals, the only aspect of the profile that can be reliably estimated is age. However, an important but difficult aspect of the biological profile is ancestry. When working toward an identification of a set of subadult remains, it can only be said that the remains are consistent with the demographic profile of a missing child. Little research exists that examines the use of nonmetric traits for ancestry assessment in subadult individuals, and little is known about how the traits are expressed in different age groups. This study examines ancestry assessment in subadult skeletons using the Hamann-Todd Osteological Collection at the Cleveland Museum of Natural History, the Terry Osteological Collection at the Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History, and the Johns Hopkins Fetal Skull Collection at the Cleveland Museum of Natural History. To assess ancestry, the skull and mandible of 307 subadult individuals, aged 0-20 years with known demographics are examined using the 15 nonmetric traits examined by Hefner (2009) normally used with adult individuals. Despite difficulties in scoring all 15 traits, there were differences found with each trait when compared to ancestral groups. Even among the youngest individuals in the sample, the traits could be identified and scored.

Background: Electrocution is a well-documented cause of unnatural death globally. Identification of demographic and spatial trends in developed countries has assisted in highlighting contributing factors and identifying areas at risk. This information and the appropriate institution of changes have proven worthwhile in reducing fatalities internationally. Less developed countries have shown increasing trends in electrocution fatalities related to rural-urban migration and growing electricity demand. Additional challenges plaguing such countries include illegal electricity connections and load shedding. The association of such issues to electrocution deaths have been sparsely explored. There remains a paucity of information regarding electrocution fatalities in South Africa and Africa as a whole. A general trend of increasing electrocution fatalities referred for medico-legal autopsy was observed at three medico-legal mortuaries in the eThekwini district of Kwa Zulu Natal, South Africa, from 2006 to 2016. Objectives This study aimed to analyse the epidemiology, characteristics and trends of deaths resulting from electrocutions. Methods. A retrospective descriptive study was conducted. Fatal non-lightning electrocutions autopsied at three medico-legal mortuaries in the eThekwini district over an 11year period, from 1st January 2006 to 31st December 2016, were analysed. Data sources included clinician notes, emergency services documentation, scene scripts including South African Police Services(SAPS) 180 form completed by SAPS representatives, postmortem and histology reports, toxicology reports from Forensic Toxicology unit, contemporaneous notes, postmortem death registers, daily listings of postmortem case allocations and electronic postmortem databases. Data were collated and categorised on an Excel spreadsheet and then analysed on statistical package STATA 13 (Stata Corp, TX, USA). 12 Results: There were 512 non-lightning electrocution fatalities from 1 st January 2006 to 31st December 2016. The trend of electrocutions indicates a general increase in cases from 2006, reaching a peak in 2013 followed by a gradual decrease until 2016. Most fatal electrocutions occurred in domestic environments amongst males in the third and fourth decade of life. However, a bimodal distribution showed a considerable number of electrocutions under 10 years of age, predominantly amongst females. The largest number of electrocutions were admitted to the chief medico-legal mortuary servicing the metro, Gale Street mortuary (43,95%). However, the highest concentration of cases was observed in Tongaat, a suburb on the outskirts of the metro. This contributed to the highest prevalence of electrocution cases (1,25% of all electrocution cases) being admitted to the Phoenix medico-legal mortuary, which serves predominantly Northern eThekwini, including Tongaat, and which lies on the fringe of the metro. Deaths from electrocution tend to occur mainly during the midday period, during the weekends, and commonly during the summer months. Injuries associated with fatal electrocutions in all age groups studied generally affected the extremities and predominantly involved the upper limbs. Blood alcohol concentrations were established in just over a quarter of cases and were mostly negative. Conclusion: Electrocution is an easily preventable unnatural death that remains poorly documented and analysed, especially in developing countries, with a paucity of studies in South Africa. Preventative measures and protocols cannot be generalised amongst populations. An appreciation of the demographic and temporal trends of electrocutions is crucial in order to institute preventative policy.