The purpose of this study has been to survey textbooks for debate and argumentation courses in order to determine their treatment of forensic ethics. Both the extent to which modern debate and argumentation textbooks concern themselves with ethical considerations as well as the degree to which these texts correlate with recognized problems and authoritative views have been of concern.

The data presented in this thesis has been organized in three parts: First part included the development and validation of a quantitative HPLC-DAD analytical method of mephedrone after extraction from spiked whole blood and serum samples, alone and with methcathinone. The second part included in vitro metabolism of mephedrone and other NPS, which are methoxetamine and methcathinone, using an in-house prepared in vitro metabolic system, namely liver microsomes, followed by performing analysis for the drugs and their proposed metabolites utilizing LC-MS. Third part included in vitro studies of selected NPS using purchased HepaRG and hepatocytes. In vitro study included in vitro cytotoxicity studies of 4-fluoromethamphetamine, mephedrone, methoxetamine and methcathinone, and analytical studies of these drugs of abuse and their potentially produced metabolites using GC-MS. In the first part of this thesis, a HPLC method for the analysis of mephedrone after LLE from blood matrix was developed and validated and shown to be linear with R2> 0.995, precise with intraday and interday RSD values of 4.36 and 4.77% respectively and LOD and LOQ of 0.025 and 0.082 μg/mL respectively. Recovery percentages were low and ranged between 28-37%. Emulsion formation was the major problem effaced which negatively affected recovery and precision values. The previously developed method was optimised and fully validated for the simultaneous analysis of mephedrone and methcathinone after liquid-liquid extraction (LLE) from whole blood and serum samples. The LLE method was optimised through selection of extraction solvent and adjustment of pH values achieving the best validation parameters and minimal emulsion formation. The LLE protocol involved extraction with a mixture of dichloromethane: n-butanol (80:20 v: v) after buffering the sample with borate buffer pH=9.2 and using aniline as internal standard. The HPLC-DAD method was optimized, using reverse mode chromatography and buffered mobile phase of (acetate buffer pH 4.1: ACN – 85:15) for qualitative and quantitative analysis of these drugs in less than 10 minutes under isocratic elution and ambient temperature. The method was fully validated for both drugs and showed to be linear over the specified range of 0.1-10 μg/mL with R2 > 0.99 for both drugs. The accuracy was assessed by calculating percentage recovery at different concentrations for xii both drugs, and retained recovery percent between 84-110%. For repeatability and intermediate precision tests, RSD values were ≤ 6.73%. Specificity was assessed by good resolution between the peaks and by checking peak purities. Limit of detection and limit of quantification, calculated mathematically for both drugs either extracted from whole blood or serum samples, were 0.010- 0.013 μg/ml and 0.032 - 0.043 μg/mL, respectively. In the second part, in vitro studies on the metabolism of the selected NPS using pig liver microsomes and liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS) analysis were performed. Microsomes were prepared by a conventional ultracentrifugation method. In brief, pig liver was brought freshly from local abattoir, sliced into small pieces, homogenised and ultra-centrifuged to produce microsomes and S9 fractions. Produced microsomes were incubated with the drugs of interest under optimised conditions and followed by analysis utilizing LC-MS for the detection of the drugs and the potentially produced metabolites. It was possible to detect two metabolites of the drug mephedrone, hydroxytolyl-mephedrone and nor-dihydro mephedrone. For MXE, one metabolite produced by the O-demethylation was detected and it identity confirmed by MS/MS study to be o-desmethyl-MXE. Another metabolite was detected is suggestively produced by the reduction of the ketone moiety to produce dihydro-MXE or by two steps of O-demethylation and hydroxylation to produce O-desmethyl –hydroxy-MXE. However, due to low intensity signal recorded, MS/MS study was not conclusive for the identity of the molecule In the third part, two types of hepatocytes were used for the study of the metabolism and cytotoxicity of the selected NPS - Mephedrone, Methoxetamine, Methcathinone and 4-Fluoromethamphetamine. Studying the metabolism of selected NPS followed utilizing HepaRG™ followed by GC-MS analysis, it was possible to detect new peaks in the chromatograms of mephedrone and methcathinone which is suggestively the product of N-demethylation. However, it was not possible to detect any new peaks in the chromatograms of methoxetamine nor 4-flouromethamphetamine. The cytotoxicity study utilizing HepaRG cell line showed that these drugs have cytotoxic effects causing in vitro cell death, within the specified range of 4.0x10-2-1.6x101 mM. These drugs were able to cause 43-83% ii cell death, and EC50 values were 0.2323-0.6297 mM. The most potent drug was 4-fluoromethamphetamine, while mephedrone showed the least biological effect to produce.

Call number: LD2668 .T4 1950 M335 / Master of Science

N/A

Background: In the South African mining sector, cardiorespiratory autopsy examinations are conducted on deceased mineworkers to determine eligibility for compensation, irrespective of the cause of death. An autopsy examination is a right under the Occupational Diseases in Mines and Works Act, Act No. 78 of 1973 (ODMWA) except for mineworkers who received maximum compensation awarded for occupational lung diseases in second degree category during life. Compensation awards to the deceased mineworkers’ dependants can contribute to short- or medium-term poverty alleviation. In spite of the possible benefits, ODMWA autopsy utilisation by black mineworkers’ families is incomplete. Increased utilisation has the potential to assist in alleviating poverty. It is imperative to understand what contributes to autopsy utilisation or non-utilisation by black mineworkers, as this will guide public health policy intervention regarding ODMWA autopsy. Aims: The study set out to quantify the monetary contribution of ODMWA autopsy to mineworkers’ families, to estimate the loss of potential financial benefits due to autopsy non-utilisation; define the characteristics of those deceased mineworkers who did not use the autopsy service (to tentatively formulate reasons for not using autopsy); and to describe the barriers and enablers that contribute to ODMWA autopsy utilisation. Methods: The study was primarily qualitative; however quantitave investigations were undertaken using data from the National Institute for Occupational Health (NIOH), the Medical Bureau for Occupational Diseases (MBOD), and The Employment Bureau of Africa (TEBA). First, a descriptive study was undertaken to determine autopsy utilisation and establish the amount of compensation paid to dependants of deceased mineworkers over a ten-year period (2001- 2010) following autopsy examination; and to estimate the loss of financial benefits from autopsy non-utilisation. Also, the characteristics of those deceased ii mineworkers recorded by MBOD in 2001-2008 but who did not undergo autopsy examination were investigated using data in the subjects’ MBOD files. The characteristics investigated included previous submissions to MBOD or date of last submission; age of the deceased at death and place and date of death; labour history, the last date of work; cause of death and medical information. Second, in-depth interviews on perceptions of autopsy were carried out with participants. The key participants were former and in-service mineworkers, relatives and widows of deceased mineworkers and others (traditional healers, occupational health practitioners, community and organised labour leaders). These categories of participants were selected because of the particular perspective that they were likely to bring to the study. A semistructured questionnaire was used to guide the in-depth interviews. All interview data were transcribed into English. Key ideas generated were noted at the end of each interview. The notes were examined for overall depth and meaning. The notes for each respondent were uploaded in their groups onto 2003 MAXqda PC (2003) and coded into segments and grouped into categories. Emerging themes were identified using a conceptual framework and meaning interpreted. Results Autopsy utilisation: 71% of in-service mineworkers over the 10-year period were employed by mines affiliated with TEBA. Using the annual TEBA-reported deaths as the denominator and ODMWA autopsies as the numerator, it was estimated that during 2000-2010, autopsy utilisation by black miners who died in service ranged from 30-46%. It is argued that these figures were an over-estimate as they did not include former mineworkers or in-service mineworkers working for TEBA non-affiliated mines. The results suggest that the majority of autopsy examinations were of TEBA registered mineworkers. Following autopsy examinations over ten years, 311 deceased mineworkers not compensated in life were certified by MBOD to suffer occupational lung disease in the first degree and 2 426 in the second degree categories respectively following autopsy examination. Autopsy non-utilisation: From the TEBA recorded deaths and ODMWA autopsies performed by NIOH, there were 15 064 mineworkers who did not undergo autopsy examination during 2001-2012. It is estimated that 355 mineworkers would have been certified in the first degree category, and 2 769 in the second degree category had they come to autopsy. Contribution of ODMWA autopsy to compensation: Each family of the 311 deceased mineworkers certified with occupational lung disease in the first degree category would have received an average lump sum payment of $8 750. Similarly each family of the 2 426 mineworkers certified with occupational lung disease in the second degree category would have received an average lump sum payment of $12 907 Additionally, each family of the 59 cases upgraded from first to second degree category following autopsy examination would have received an average lump sum payment of $5 250. If assumptions were made that Stewart (2007)’s findings on financial spending on basic needs such as food person per family of seven members were similar to that of mineworkers compensated following ODMWA autopsy; households that received $8 750 in compensation would have had sufficient money to buy food for 29-47 months. Similarly those who received $12 907.79 and $5 250 could have managed to buy food for 49-80 and 20-33 months respectively. Characteristics of deceased mineworkers: Tentative reasons of no autopsy examination were dying at home, recent MBOD submission, age of the mineworker, previous and current TB infection certified by MBOD. Ninety six percent of them died at home and four percent died in district public hospitals. Sixty four percent were recently submitted to MBOD and of these mineworkers, 70% had pulmonary tuberculosis. The majority were fairly young i.e. 52% died before the age of 50 years and a further 12% before the age of 60 years. Barriers and enablers of ODMWA autopsy: Barriers and enablers of ODMWA autopsy consent and utilisation were found to be diverse, complex, and multifaceted such that a multipronged intervention strategy would be required to increase utilisation. The barriers and enablers of ODMWA autopsy were in individual/family; socio-cultural and institutional perspectives. The respondents could rationalise their acceptance or rejection of autopsy within their own individual cultural or religious belief system and these varied according to the individual’s experiences, family beliefs and societal practices. Enablers regarding consent to ODMWA autopsy were dissociation of the body from the soul, matrilineal relations to the deceased mineworker, communication with ancestors while the mineworker was healthy, deaths described as bad by participants. Key to autopsy consent facilitation was the mineworkers communicating their acceptance of ODMWA autopsy examination to their families and by communicating this intention to their ancestors -where this was consistent with their belief system. Foremost among the barriers to ODMWA autopsy utilisation was the requirement of formal consent within a biomedical framework, which clashed with certain socio-cultural beliefs. These cultural barriers were associated with patriarchal relations to the deceased mineworkers, beliefs that being buried without cardiorespiratory organs was synonymous to burying an empty box, health workers’ attitudes, mistrust, commodification of body parts, community traditional norms and practices and unequal power relations on decision making which led to exclusion of potential beneficiaries (widows and children). Conclusion: The study documented that a large number of in-service black mineworkers did not utilise ODMWA autopsy in spite of the potential financial benefits demonstrated. Additionally, former mineworkers who did not utilise autopsy were under fifty years of age, died of PTB within twelve months of leaving mines at their homes. The study found cultural beliefs that were barriers to autopsy utilisation, but also those that may enable these barriers to be overcome. The finding that the cultural beliefs were not static or uniform suggested that increasing autopsy consent would require comprehensive communication and awareness intervention strategies aimed at individual, family and community levels. The intervention strategies should not be once-off, but long-term and should address the cultural beliefs. The enablers of autopsy utilisation could be used in the awareness messages. Further research is required to investigate the attitude of health care providers (nurses, traditional healers, medical practitioners etc) to ODMWA autopsy utilisation, investigate the process of decentralising the autopsy examination and the impact this will have on appeals, standardisation and resources; and to examine the legal framework which would make ODMWA autopsy permissible without the current consent requirements, possibly under similar conditions to forensic medicine. Revising consent requirements is important to alleviate the conflict felt by spouses, mineworkers and relatives who have to satisfy cultural imperatives which are at odds with giving consent to permanent removal of cardiorespiratory organs. ODMWA should remain in place until exposures resulting in occupational lung diseases have been reduced to non-disease-causing levels or no new occupational diseases are found at autopsy. The enablers and barriers to ODMWA autopsy found in this study may be generalisable to similar socio-cultural environments outside South Africa.

Short tandem repeat typing is the primary method of DNA identification used in the field of forensic science. Over the past several years the need to improve on this method has moved to the forefront of research. Due to the increasing number of criminal cases and the substantial backlogs most laboratories are facing, it is vital to evaluate methods which can produce quality DNA profiles in a fast and reliable manner. Direct amplification, also referred to as direct PCR, is one alternative method that has been proposed to address this issue. Direct amplification allows for the generating of DNA profiles without using the DNA isolation process. While direct PCR would reduce processing time and resources, it is unknown if this technique would be able to generate a robust full or partial profile from samples which could be collected from scenes of crime. Often crime scene personnel must use visualization techniques, either in powder or chemical form, in order to see and collect biological evidence for submission to a crime laboratory. In order to evaluate if direct PCR is a feasible solution a comparative study between a direct PCR kit and standard DNA profiling practices was undertaken using mock crime scene type samples. Samples of this nature include surfaces which have been exposed to fingerprint powders and whole blood which has been chemically enhanced for visualization. PowerPlex® 18D, a direct amplification system, and PowerPlex® 16HS, an extraction-based method, were used to produce the profiles. An assessment of the kits aimed to critically evaluate and compare how the direct amplification kit performs on samples which have been exposed to powder and chemical processing for visual enhancement. This will be done by reviewing two types of samples; epithelial cells which have been exposed the fingerprint powders (black, magnetic and white) and whole blood which has been exposed to chemicals (luecocrystal violet, amido black and ninhydrin). Samples subjected to direct amplification using PowerPlex® 18D generated DNA profiles with greater peak heights when compared to the extraction- based method. The peak balances for heterozygous loci were also higher and more full profiles were generated with direct amplification than with the extraction method. The amount of DNA retrieved from each substrate also varied even though the same amounts of starting material were deposited, proving that the type of substrate can affect the retrieval of DNA. Epithelial cell samples were most successful when processed with white powder. Magnetic powder samples also yielded a positive result when using direct amplification which was not expected as in previous data magnetic powder samples have not been successful. Whole blood samples which were processed with amido black produced profiles with lower overall peak heights when compared to the two other chemical processes. This could be attributed to the rinse step which is required when working with amido black. Ninhydrin was the most successful of the chemicals in generating full, good quality profiles.

The ability to discriminate between different inks and to determine the length of time an ink has been on a substrate can provide important scientific evidence, especially in cases involving document fraud. Many techniques have been used to analyse inks for ink dating including chromatography and spectroscopy, but the results are unreliable as a result of factors affecting the aging process such as light. This study utilises established techniques in Forensic Document Examination, including filtered light examination but also novel techniques for ink analysis; Atmospheric Pressure Chemical Ionisation (APCI) to analyse inks and dyes with the aim of discriminating between samples based on their degradation products. APCI-MS was used for the first time to study nineteen ballpoint pens from a range of manufacturers by investigating the chemical processes that occur and the products that are formed following the deposition of ink onto a substrate and in solution. Monitoring the degradation process as an ink ages and fades enables the identification of components present in the inks. Using molecular mass data, accurate ink component identifications could be made over a period of two years on samples subjected to a range of external influences. Light, hydrogen peroxide and sodium hypochlorite bleach were used to simulate natural and deliberate fading of inks and dye solutions. Benzophenone and phenol molecules were identified as degradation products but their presence differed for each of the different conditions tested such as no phenol products when bleach was used. This novel approach to ink analysis utilises existing equipment commonly used by document examiner to analyse inks that are old or faded in some way, in order to discriminate between the inks or determine method of alteration.

This PhD aimed to understand the constructs of aggression motivation and inhibition among prisoners. The research explored the role of developmental, affect, personality and socio-cognitive factors in aggression, investigating how these factors contributed to motives and inhibitors. This addressed several gaps in our knowledge and understanding of these factors among prisoners. In doing so, it contributed to the proposal of an empirically informed developmental model of aggression motivation and inhibition for prisoners, a model potentially capable of accounting for the theoretical and clinical limitations of existing explanatory models. Study one involved 206 adult men from a medium secure prison. This study specifically examined the role of aggression (using the Aggression Motivation Questionnaire, AMQ; Ireland, 2007) and offence motivation (with the Offence Motivation Questionnaire, OMQ; Gudjonsson & Sigurdsson, 2004) and affect (using the Multidimensional Anger Inventory, MAI; Sigel, 1989). Contrary to predictions, aggression motivation extended beyond the traditional reactive versus proactive distinction, with four core motivations identified. Further challenging the previous dichotomous distinction were findings that affect was related to all motivations and not just reactive aggression. The structure of offence motivation was consistent with previous research suggesting the validity of such motivation. Relationships found between individual offence and aggression motives supported longstanding notions in the human motivation and rationale choice literature that a limited number of motivations are capable of accounting for the diversity of human behaviour. Study one strengthens the argument to further examine and understand the factors contributing to such aggression motivations, such as cognition or developmental and life course experiences. Study two recruited 210 adult male prisoners to examine the developmental and socio-cognitive factors underpinning aggression motivations. Confirmation as to the structure of aggression motivation was also evaluated. It was predicted that differing developmental and socio-cognitive factors would relate to each motivation. Analysis supported this and thus further understanding was achieved as to the contribution of these factors. Reformulation of existing developmental models of aggression and the importance of social cognition for adult prisoners were consequently highlighted. However, attempts to confirm the four-factor solution for aggression motivation identified in Study 1 was not achieved. Exploratory factor analysis supported the extraction of a three-component solution from the AMQ, which was underpinned by ‘protection’, ‘pleasure’ and ‘positive outcomes’ motivations. This raised doubt as to the underlying structure of aggression motivation, which required further examination. Study three involved 234 prisoners from two separate prisons. All participants were adult men. This study facilitated the further exploration of maladaptive personality and affect regulation strategies in aggression motivation. Evaluation of the components of aggression inhibition was also undertaken. As expected, personality and affect regulation strategies were individually associated with aggression motives and inhibitors. This suggested that these factors had a unique contribution to aggression motivations and inhibitors. A four component structure for aggression inhibition was identified through exploratory factor analysis. The three factor structure for aggression motivation indicated by Study 2 was supported by confirmatory factor analysis. The findings gained from this study were combined with previous studies and influenced the development of the Applied Integrated Model of Aggression Motivation (AIM-AM). This new proposed integrated model of aggression is described in detail in the last Chapter of this thesis. The current research highlights the importance of considering aggression motivation and inhibition by demonstrating how valuable information to assist our understanding of aggression can be enhanced through their detailed examination. This research points towards a range of underlying factors which motivate and inhibit aggression in prisoners, including personality traits, developmental and life experiences, cognition and affect regulation. This was drawn together in the AIM-AM, which remains the first proposed aggression model developed specifically from the study of forensic populations. This applied theoretical model and underpinning research has a range of research and clinical implications for those working with prisoners, such as guiding the psychological assessment and risk evaluations of prisoners and focusing interventions to reduce their likelihood of aggression.

<p> This study examines whether 500 solid copper bullets fired from a 9mm firearm would have a significant effect on the individual rifling characteristics of the barrels of a Glock Model 17, a Beretta Model M9, and a Taurus Model PT 92 AF. Five silicone casts of each barrel bore were prepared over the course of this study. The casts were used to compare and evaluate the wear on the rifling of each barrel and note any changes that may have occurred during the progression of the study. The bullets were purchased as reloading components and were tested for hardness in addition to Energy Dispersive Spectroscopy (EDS) analysis. The bullets used for examination were collected at the start, throughout the experiment, and after the firearm had been cleaned following the 500 firings. The bullets, as well as barrel casts, were analyzed using a Leica FS C comparison microscope. Results from the analysis indicate the bullets do not obturate and they do not engage with the grooves of each barrel. Analysis of land impressions show striations that deteriorate or disappear completely; while others appear over the course of firing the 500 copper bullets. Regarding the influence of the bullet wear on the individual rifling characteristics, the striations of each firearm barrel were permanently changed to the point where bullet identification no longer was possible.</p><p>

Ninhydrin is one of the most widely used chemical reagents for the enhancement of latent fingerprint impressions on porous substrates^1-22. Ninhydrin (2,2-dihydroxyindane-1,3-dione) reacts with the amino acids most commonly encountered in the sweat of fingerprints, producing an intense purple color^1. Since ninhydrin reacts with amino groups in organic compounds, the chemical ought to be able to positively react with biological materials collected at crime scenes that contain amino acids associated with the nucleic acids in DNA^1,21. Previous studies have investigated the use of ninhydrin as a screening tool for specific types of biological material^21,22. Driscoll et al. has found that treating buccal swabs with ninhydrin has greatly assisted in locating the buccal cells for subsequent DNA analysis^22. Bayer et al. has shown that ninhydrin can be an effective screening method of swabs containing an unknown content of biological material and can detect cellular material on handled items^21. In addition, ninhydrin has repeatedly been shown to have minimal effect on DNA and downstream PCR processes^16,21,22. Present methods for body fluid identification test for only one body fluid at a time, i.e. identifying three different body fluids would require that three different assays be employed. Pre-screening certain items with ninhydrin could assist crime scene investigators in collecting the most probative samples, rather than randomly selecting from items that may or may not contain any biological material. Ninhydrin is inexpensive, easy to use and has the potential to be an effective screening tool for various types of biological material. Additionally, a tool that encompasses various types of biological materials is beneficial to crime scene investigators by minimizing the resources needed and providing a broader situational use. In this study, the capability of ninhydrin to react with dilute blood, neat semen, neat saliva, vaginal secretions, neat urine and perspiration was determined. In addition, the efficacy of various methods for processing and developing the ninhydrin reaction as well as the effectiveness of ninhydrin as a screening tool on various substrates were explored. Furthermore, the effect of ninhydrin on subsequent presumptive and confirmatory body fluid testing was examined. The results show that ninhydrin can successfully enhance latent blood, semen, saliva, vaginal secretions, urine and perspiration. Different substrates affected the visualization of ninhydrin-processed stains, thus the type of substrate should be considered when using ninhydrin, and methods may need to be adjusted accordingly. Further, ninhydrin processing does not appear to detrimentally affect subsequent presumptive and confirmatory screening for blood, semen and urine. Saliva testing results were inconsistent and must be further studied to determine whether or not ninhydrin negatively affects the outcome of these tests. Not all stains that reacted positively with ninhydrin were body fluids. Whole milk, beer, Red Bull® and Naked Juice protein smoothie all showed a purple color change when processed with ninhydrin. The best ninhydrin solvent overall was determined to be HFE7100 due to its cleaner application and more consistent results than petroleum ether. The use of a steam iron may detrimentally impact secondary screening of body fluids; suspected body fluids should be processed with ninhydrin in a laboratory oven at approximately 70℃ to prevent potential loss of evidence.