The interrelationship between trees and humans is primordial. As pressures on natural resources grow and become more complex this innate connection drives an increased need for improved data and analytical techniques for assessing the status and trends of forests, trees, their products, and their services. Techniques for using readily available data such as the Forest Inventory and Analysis (FIA) database and output from forest disturbance detection algorithms derived from Landsat data, such as Vegetation Change Tracker (VCT), for estimating forest attributes across time from the state and inventory unit level down to the stand and pixel level are presented. Progressively more comprehensive harvest and parcel boundary records are incorporated appropriately. Quantification of attributes, including non-timber forest products and fine-scale age estimates, across the landscape both historically and into the future is emphasized. Spatial information on the distribution of forest resources by age-class provides knowledge of timber volume through time and across the landscape to support forest management for sustained production. In addition to monitoring forest resources in regards to their value as products for human consumption, their measurement facilitates analysis of the relationship of their spatial and temporal abundance to other resources such as water and wildlife. / Ph. D.

The U.S. hardwood industry has traditionally depended on the domestic demand to sustain levels of production above 14 billion board feet per year. Because of the collapse of the U.S. housing market in 2009 and the economic recession that followed, the industry moved its sight to the international markets, as an opportunity to replace some lost demand, and pursue long term growth. Previous research on international marketing of hardwood products indicates that, there is a growing concern among U.S. companies to understand the main competitiveness factors in key markets such as Asia and Europe. Finding opportunities to add value to U.S. hardwood exports has been the goal of this research project. A case study and survey research were carried out among importers and exporters, whereby it was found that aspects related to price, quality and service, are critical in achieving competitive advantage. This motivated a study in demand and pricing management, which found that these tasks may be subject to innovation through optimization approaches. / Ph. D.

In the past five years, most agricultural producers in the United States have suffered from depressed conditions in the commodity markets. The supplies of basic food commodities have burgeoned, demand has fallen, and price levels have declined, despite $55 billion in U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) commodity support program expenditures since 1983 (FAPRI, 1988). Since the early 1980's, farm income and asset balances have declined and debt has risen, increasing the financial stress for many producers. The financial strain could be more acute for those operators with a significant proportion of marginal land in production. Conversely, the USDA Forest Service recently projected that during the next 30-to-40 years softwood forest product demand will increase, available supplies will decrease, and real price levels will increase (USDA Forest Service, 1987). These conditions create the option of converting marginal agricultural lands to forestry investments. A technique was developed to compare possible financial returns between prevalent cropping systems and forestry investments on marginal soil series throughout Virginia. Crops and tree species used in the study include the following: corn (Mays L.), soybeans (Glycine max), soft red winter wheat (Triticum L.), orchard grass (Festuca L.), clover (Trifolium L.), fescue (Festuca L.) pasture, and loblolly pine (Pinus taeda L.), and eastern white pine (Pinus strobus). With state-of-the-art management regimen for agricultural production, annual profit or loss estimates were computed for a variety of soil productivity classes and market price levels. Intensive management was also prescribed for the forestry investment analysis. Using current inputs and projected market price levels, a cash flow analysis program computed equal annual equivalent (EAE's) values for the investment analyses to derive results comparable to those for agriculture. Under the "base" assumptions and current and foreseen markets, forestry investment was determined to be competitive with agricultural production on the marginal soil series. However, government subsidies, benefiting both forest products and agricultural production, complicate the results. Further, the dependency of both markets on macroeconomic and other exogenous variables precludes any guarantee of investment performance over the 35-to-45 year investment horizon for either alternative. The study does provide a foundation for financial comparison, to which a landowner might add individual, subjective evaluations of land use (and financial criteria and assumptions) to reach a decision about the utilization of marginal agricultural lands. / Master of Science

Today, American industries are in a highly competitive international market. To achieve the competitive edge, manufacturers are demanding excellence from their vendor/suppliers. The pallet and container industries are the suppliers to the other companies. Statistical Process Control (SPC) is one-way to prove to the buyer the quality level of their products. One part of the this thesis is a handbook, which explains a step by step process of implementing an SPC program for the pallet and container industry. In addition, the thesis examines the quality levels of materials that goes into the pallet including the finished product such as raw material, cut-stock, fasteners, and workmanship. The raw material proved quite variable from the different sawmills. The between board variation was greater than the within for both the thickness and width. The cut-stock had less size variation in thickness than width. The workmanship of the finished pallets showed that the number of nail splits and uniformity of deckboard spacing to be a problem. While the number of missing nails, protruding nail points and heads, and the "out of squareness." It was not a problem. The physical characteristics of the fasteners proved extremely variable from one characteristic to another. There are a number of fasteners being produced outside of the NWPCA criteria for wire diameters. The most popular fastener gauges are the 11 and 11.5. In addition, the most popular fastener length is 2.25 and fastener flute number is 4. The MIBANT angle variation is higher for the stiffstock fasteners then the hardened fasteners. / Master of Science

Two analysis techniques were demonstrated for use in new product development by the wood products industry. A new molded wood structural product developed by the U.S. Forest Service Forest Products Laboratory known as FPL Spaceboard II was used to illustrate the techniques. Determinant attribute analysis was first employed to identify the product attributes most important to purchase decisions regarding substrate materials for the office furniture industry - the most likely target for introduction of Spaceboard II. A matrix-type decision model was then developed and illustrated which assists in selecting the most attractive product-market opportunity for a new product still in the development stages based on market attractiveness and relative competitive advantage of the product. Surveys were directed to manufacturers of office furniture and to producers of industrial particleboard and medium-density fiberboard which currently are the most common materials utilized as substrates in the office furniture industry. The furniture survey collected information regarding the perceived importance and variability of an array of physical product characteristics in the selection of a substrate material for office furniture. The survey of industrial particleboard and medium-density fiberboard producers acquired information regarding the importance of factors affecting decisions to enter and compete in a given market and ratings of the office furniture substrate market on those factors. The results of the determinant attribute analysis indicated that fastener withdrawal strength, surface smoothness, flatness, stiffness (MOE), and edgebanding capability were the product attributes which would most affect the decision to purchase substrate material for office furniture, and consequently are the attributes to focus on in developing a new product for that market. Use of the decision model was illustrated with Spaceboard II and resulted in a hypothetical matrix with the product positioned based on the attractiveness of the office furniture substrate market and Spaceboard II’s relative competitive advantage over existing materials in that market versus its competitive position in other market scenarios. / Master of Science

As the federal deficit rises in the United States, interest in a consumption tax system or the value added tax (VAT) also increases. This investigation attempts to determine the short-run impacts of a value added tax upon private forest management. A literature review investigates the theoretical economic impacts of a VAT and experience with the tax in other countries. Then supply and demand functions in both the southern pine sawtimber stumpage and new single-facility housing sector are empirically derived. These functions are used to determine the short-run housing price elasticities of the quantity of houses sold and the price and quantity of stumpage sold. From this, the impact of a VAT-induced housing price change is determined, and simulation with different VAT rates are performed. Based on housing markets alone, it is found that a VAT is likely to cause a short-run reduction in sawtimber stumpage price and quantity demanded which is less than 1/10 percent of the VAT rate. / M.S.

The study had the dual objective of characterizing the present role of Virginia's wood furniture industry within Virginia's overall economy and evaluating the possible economic implications of changes in the major production factors influencing the future development of the industry. Supporting the hypothesis that the furniture industry is a major contributor to the economy of Virginia, the following factors were considered: size and number of plants, labor force, wages, and productivity of firms in Virginia. The industry 1n Virginia employed in excess of 21,000 employees in 1964. / Master of Science

The forest products industry significantly contributes to Virginia's economy, generating $23 billion annually, employing 109,000 individuals, and providing $345 million to timber landowners. Hardwood log exports are a crucial portion of this economic contribution, with major importers including China, Vietnam, and Canada. Most importing countries have specific requirements to prevent the movement of invasive organisms on the logs imported, of which chemical treatment is common. This study examines the feasibility and implications of transitioning from chemical-based treatments, such as methyl bromide, to a vacuum and steam treatment for hardwood log exports. Our investigation focuses on understanding the barriers to the adoption of this new technology, including industry awareness and perception, regulatory framework challenges, international acceptance, and economic viability. By addressing these areas, we aim to create a comprehensive manual for any company interested in adopting this technology. The manual will include a performance measurement system and a feasibility study to ensure successful implementation. Therefore, this thesis consists of two documents, the first provides background information, a problem statement and methods and results around the investigation of barriers to the adoption of this new treatment and a second document, the proposed manual to assist with implementation. To address the first objective, data were collected through interviews with technology developers, industry experts, and hardwood log importers in China and India. Quantitative data highlighted a 36.7% increase in US hardwood log exports to China in 2023, with species like alder and yellow poplar leading the market. Results indicate that China imports a significantly higher volume of hardwood logs monthly compared to India, highlighting a larger and more consistent demand. Commonly imported species include red and white oak, ash, and walnut. Both countries have strict fumigation requirements, primarily using methyl bromide, underscoring a global reliance on this method despite its environmental concerns. Awareness of alternative treatments such as vacuum and steam is limited, though there is interest in exploring cost-effective and efficient methods. However, adoption is hindered by regulatory approval and the need for proven effectiveness. To facilitate this transition, we created a comprehensive manual for companies to guide them through replacing methyl bromide and other chemical treatments with vacuum and steam technology. This study provides a comprehensive pathway for adopting vacuum and steam technology, addressing technical, regulatory, and economic considerations. The forest products sector can mitigate environmental impact by aligning industry practices with sustainable treatment methods while maintaining international trade relationships. / Master of Science / Virginia's forest industry is a major part of the state's economy, generating $23 billion each year and providing jobs to 109,000 people. Hardwood logs, particularly those exported to countries like China, Vietnam, and Canada, play a significant role in this economic impact. However, these countries require that imported logs be treated to prevent the spread of harmful pests. Traditionally, chemical treatments like methyl bromide have been used, but they pose environmental concerns. Our study explores the possibility of switching to a safer and more environmentally friendly method: vacuum and steam treatment. We looked into the challenges that might come with adopting this new technology, such as how aware the industry is of it, regulatory hurdles, whether international markets would accept it, and whether it's economically feasible. Our goal is to create a helpful guide for companies interested in making this switch, ensuring they have all the information needed to implement the new treatment successfully. To gather insights, we interviewed experts and key players in the industry, including log importers from China and India. We found that while there is interest in exploring new treatments, there are significant challenges, particularly related to getting regulatory approval and proving the effectiveness of the new method. Despite these challenges, our research outlines a clear path for adopting vacuum and steam treatment, which could help the forest products industry reduces its environmental impact while continuing to thrive in international trade.

Since 1960, pallet production has quadrupled, increasing the pallet industry's use of hardwood lumber from 14 percent to almost 50 percent of total hardwood lumber production. Part of this growth can be attributed to the grocery and related products industry, which should continue as a major growth area for pallet usage over the next decade. The general objective of this study is to provide information that can be used to understand the long-term potential and long-term trends in the grocery pallet market which relate to future regional timber demands by the pallet industry. Specific objectives are: (A) Provide information on current use of grocery pallets in the grocery distribution industry; (B) Provide theoretical framework for future analysis of the regional demand for grocery pallets; and (C) Provide information on demand for regional timber resources resulting from grocery pallet production within specified regions. Models are presented representing demand and supply in the grocery and related products and grocery pallet markets. In the grocery pallet model, demand for new grocery pallets is expressed as an 'excess demand' where demand for new grocery pallets equals the difference between aggregate supply of pallets to grocery distribution and available inventory of grocery pallets in the system. Inventory of grocery pallets in grocery distribution is expressed as a function of dollar volume of retail sales, based on application of a stock adjustment model for durable inputs. Consumption of grocery pallets by the grocery distribution industry is shown to be an important part in overall new pallet production even though the pallet used, 48"x40", only constitutes about 11 percent of total new pallet production in 1986. Estimates of national consumption of new grocery pallets in 1986 are broken down into regional estimates of new pallet consumption. Volume of wood raw material used in 1986 for production of grocery pallets is estimated to exceed 838 million board foot of wood raw material, or potentially 18 percent of total hardwood raw material consumed in production of all types of pallets. National trends effecting wood use in grocery distribution are considered. Specific regional trends effecting wood raw material use are not identified. / Ph. D.

There is growing acknowledgement that forests and forest products are central to rural livelihoods, but their role in lifting households out of poverty remains contentious. This study tested the assertion by proponents of forest based poverty alleviation that changing conditions in the use and management of forests and forest products has created opportunities for poor rural households to lift themselves out of poverty. The study used detailed annual income data from various household sectors in two contrasting sites in Zambia, namely Mufulira and Kabompo districts, analyzing the relative contribution of forest income to household livelihood, the effect of household wealth status on forest use, factors driving household participation in forest product trade, and the influence of distance to urban markets on trends in the use of forest products. The study found that forest based activities play a central role in the livelihoods of households in the two study sites, contributing close to half of total household income, and dwarfing the contribution of agricultural sectors such as cropping and livestock rearing which are generally regarded as the main income sources for rural households. Forest based sectors were also found to be particularly valuable sources of household cash, often coming at critical times to meet basic needs. The findings also revealed that without the contribution of forest income, the proportion of households that would fall below the poverty line would increase sharply in both study sites. Wealthier households earned higher magnitudes of both subsistence and cash income from forest based activities than their poorer counterparts. Even the share of total household income coming from forest based activities was also higher among these better-off households, confirming that these activities are lucrative and they are improving the wealth status of households. Household participation in forest product trade was found to be influenced by demographic factors such as number of productive household members, age and the education level of the household head. Economic factors such as the level of income from wage labour, household poverty level, and ownership of key assets such as a bicycle were found to be important. Distance of homestead from the forest was also found to be an important contextual variable. The influence of urban demand on the use of forest products by rural households was significant in the study area. Although local sales played an important part as a source of cash for households, the most preferred channels for trade were linked to urban markets, either through roadside markets, middlemen or direct sales to urban buyers. The study concluded that with improved local organization and support for product development and marketing, some forest based activities provide a viable poverty alleviation option for poor rural households who otherwise have limited economic opportunities to escape poverty.