Thesis (Ph. D.)--University of Hawaii at Manoa, 2004. / Includes bibliographical references. / Also available by subscription via World Wide Web / xiv, 177 leaves, bound ill., maps 29 cm

Thesis (Ph. D.)--University of New South Wales, 2002. / Also available online.

A dissertation submitted to the Faculty of Arts in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the Masters Degree in Recreation and Tourism in the Department of Recreation and Tourism at the University of Zululand, South Africa, 2009. / The study was conducted with the view of investigating the development of ecotourism in the Dukuduku Forest Reserve and surroundings, with specific attention paid to policy and its implementation. In an effort to develop this natural environment, there has been much overuse and degradation of the natural forest reserve. What has also been implicit is that tourist visitation numbers at the Dukuduku Forest Reserve, could decrease, and these reduced numbers of tourists could affect the employment rate within the local community. Pursuant to these observations and problems, the researcher found it appealing and necessary to explore the attitudes and perceptions of the local communities towards the usage of the natural forest reserve in Dukuduku. This would be achieved by investigating the participation, practices, and patterns associated with the existing policies and their implementation in the the Dukuduku Forest Reserve environment. In an attempt to investigate the research problem, the following research objectives were formulated: (a) To find out the extent to which stakeholders understand the meaning and importance of ecotourism in and around the Dukuduku Forest Reserve. (b) To investigate the adequacy of the provision of nature-based tourism facilities for employment purposes in the study area. (c) To examine whether there is undue over-emphasis on the commercialisation of the natural resources in the study area. (d) To reveal the degree to which tourism stakeholders participate in ecotourism development initiatives in the study area. (e) To establish whether the ecotourism related policies and practices, existing in the study area are geared towards benefitting the local community. The above listed objectives were investigated using a methodology process that involved the collecting of data from the local community of Dukuduku and other stakeholders, by means of questionnaires. The data collected was analysed using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences [SPSS] computer programme, which led to acquiring research findings. The findings that emerged showed that among the majority of respondents there is a relatively good understanding of the meaning and importance of ecotourism as a human activity. Notwithstanding, the social involvement of local communities in activities of the Dukuduku Forest and Settlement Area, were seen as inadequate. The majority of stakeholders indicated that they perceived a substantial number of ecotourism resources or facilities as inadequate and not employment based. Regarding the upholding the policy of conservation in contrast to the commercialisation of ecotourism resources, the majority of respondents were in favour of upholding the policy of conservation of ecotourism resources. The respondents were also asked to reveal how they perceive local community participation in ecotourism activities, the majority of the respondents agreed that there was no beneficial participation in ecotourism activities in the study area. Finally it was established that respondents in the study area revealed that the existing ecotourism related policies and practices were not clear to them and that the policies were geared to benefit the local community. In this regard the majority of the local community and the service providers individually indicated that the existence of policy formulation and its beneficiation was poor in the study area. The study concludes by offering some recommendations associated with the objectives of the study listed above.

Thesis (Ph.D.)--York University, 2008. Graduate Programme in Environmental Studies. / Typescript. Includes bibliographical references. Also available on the Internet. MODE OF ACCESS via web browser by entering the following URL: http://gateway.proquest.com/openurl?url_ver=Z39.88-2004&res_dat=xri:pqdiss&rft_val_fmt=info:ofi/fmt:kev:mtx:dissertation&rft_dat=xri:pqdiss:NR39056

Thesis (Ph. D.)--University of Chicago, Dept. of Anthropology, August 2001. / Includes bibliographical references. Also available on the Internet.

Subsistence harvesting pressure in most African countries focuses on the small and mostly unreproductive trees found in the understorey stratum and can have potentially insidious ecological effects. Harvest intensities at Ongoye Forest Reserve (OFR) vary significantly across the forest (range = 87 - 567 stumps ha-1), with harvesting focussed exclusively on poles from tree species that grow only in the understorey. Growing evidence indicates that seedling establishment from the pool of species available beneath a closed canopy is greatly influenced by the differential ability of species to take advantage of the short burst of resources in newly-created understorey gaps. Seedling dynamics in these gaps may determine forest tree diversity and dynamics and consequently harvest gaps have the potential to significantly affect natural forest dynamics. This study examined seedling establishment beneath intact understorey and within artificially created understorey gaps of different sizes (single stem gaps, two stem gaps, four stem gaps, eight stem gaps and control ‘gap’, where no stems were removed) that simulated different spatial scales of harvesting intensity of understorey trees. This experiment examined the proposition that successful seedling establishment and natural succession is strongly dependent on the scale of harvesting. Seedling abundance, species richness, irradiance (photosynthetically active radiation and the red to far-red ratio), soil nutrient composition and herbaceous layer cover was measured in each gap size in 2005 before harvesting, and again in 2007. The mean seedling abundance was not significantly different among gap treatments, although there was a trend towards more seedlings in 2005 than 2007. Seedling abundance in all gaps was greater than at control sites beneath the intact understorey. There was a continuous increase in seedling richness in 2007. An average species richness of 4.3 was recorded in the control sites, beneath a shaded understorey. Here, seedling richness increased by 18.24% with the removal of a single understorey tree (Gap 1). Species richness increased with increasing experimental gap size increased so that the greatest mean species richness (6.2 species) was recorded where eight neighbouring trees were removed (Gap 8). Light transmission reaching the seedling stratum was greater in larger gaps and there was a trend towards more seedlings and greater species richness in the higher light environments of such gaps. Soil nutrient levels did not influence seedling abundance and species richness in gaps. The herbaceous layer suppressed seedling establishment. In the largest gaps (115.4m2) created by harvesting, seedling composition was more deterministic than in small gaps where seedling establishment and density was random, accordingly there were more species in larger gaps from a more defined species assemblage. Current harvesting levels of pole-sized understorey trees, where only small gaps are created in the understorey, are unlikely to alter forest dynamics and species composition at OFR. This study demonstrates that harvesting eight adjacent trees crosses the harvest intensity threshold between sustainable natural tree dynamics and a potential successional shift to an alternative state. Clearly, for natural dynamics to be maintained harvesting intensities will have to be regulated. / http://hdl.handle.net/10413/631 / Thesis (M.Env.Dev.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2010.

Indigenous forest resources are valuable to communities situated around them as they provide many different resources for their livelihoods. South Africa has only 0.5% of indigenous forest cover and most forests are surrounded by local communities who depend on them for resources. At Ongoye the forest was widely (91% of households) used for fuelwood. Community members denied harvesting the forest for either building or fencing poles, claiming they bought Eucalyptus poles from suppliers in the community. However, the harvesting intensities of pole size stems confirm that the user community does harvest timber from the forest. There is a high demand for fuelwood and pole-size stems are harvested not only for building but are cut and left to dry for later use as fuelwood. Although the harvesting intensity was greater than users were prepared to admit to, harvesting levels are thought to be sustainable. Local communities did not trade in products extracted from the forest. The use of resources was only for subsistence purposes, and therefore, forest resources were only valuable to users with respect to providing support to local livelihoods. Ensuring the protection and conservation of forest resources is critical for the survival of the user communities that are dependent upon them. Most local communities are not knowledgeable about managing forest resources adjacent to them, and the management of forest resources at Ongoye is currently in the hands of the state and also the influence of the Inkosi (local tribal chief). As part of the process of democratization post 1994, the government is devolving the management of natural resources to local communities. Several models of management institutions have been proposed and tested including community forest management (CFM), state forest management (SFM), and participatory forest management (PFM). Current trends are towards participatory management institutions. Using questionnaires, I determined that users preferred PFM over both SFM and CFM. However, the local community was in favour of more state involvement in the PFM than expected. Given a choice between CFM and SFM, the user community was more favourably disposed toward SFM. This was because they viewed CFM as vulnerable to resulting in open access to resources without any control. The devolution of powers to local communities can create problems in local governance. For most areas surrounding forest resources, traditional authorities are the important 'governing' leaders. In South Africa, events post 1994 have created tensions between democratically elected and hereditary governance institutions. On the one hand democratic institutions are supposed to be created at the local level, and on the other the constitution recognizes the existence of hereditary institutions. There is a power struggle over who the legitimate authority at the local level is between democratically elected councilors and chiefs. At Ongoye, the local chief was very powerful and had strong views on the ownership and control of Ongoye. He had a positive influence on maintaining current low to moderate levels of use of forest resources. However, because there are several dangers associated with concentrating power over management of natural resources in one individual, I recommend that a participatory natural resources management institution be developed that acknowledges the important role of the Inkosi, but also tempers his influence, so that continuity of management principles is maintained should traditional leadership changes hands. / Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2005.

In 2006, a baseline survey for the UNEP/GEF-IAS Project was conducted in BFR to assess the status of IAS in the area. Findings indicated that extensive forest parts had severe S. spectabilis encroachment which appeared to interfere with the normal functioning and productivity of the forest. This study was motivated by the magnitude of S. spectabilis invasion in BFR, the level of public and government concern about the invasion, and the magnitude of the IAS problem across East Africa. This study was thus undertaken to address a specific need of the research and capacity building components of the UNEP/GEF-IAS Project. The study1 was carried out to assess the impacts of S. spectabilis invasion on the productivity of BFR and the socio-economic implications on the livelihoods of the dependent stakeholders (local resident population, timber suppliers and the tourism sector). The study used descriptive statistics to assess the levels of awareness of S. spectabilis invasion, perceptions and knowledge of the conservation values of BFR, knowledge on the benefits and costs of living with S. spectabilis and impacts of S. spectabilis on the flow of quantities and revenues from the benefits it generates. The impact on financial profitability and efficiency of timber firms was assessed using Gross margin analysis (GMA) and financial efficiency ratio analysis respectively. The impact on the population structure of chimpanzees was studied using mean differentials and focused group discussions. Results indicate that the level of awareness about S. spectabilis invasion and the knowledge of the conservation values of BFR were high among all the three stakeholder groups. GMA revealed that S. spectabilis invasion increases variable costs in timber production thus reducing profit margins and financial efficiency of timber firms. Alteration of habitat environment occasioned by S. spectabilis invasion was advanced, though with uncertainty, as a possible reason for the difference in chimpanzee numbers between the infested and non infested forest conditions. Like other IAS, S. spectabilis was found to have both benefits and costs though the distribution of the same differs. S. spectabilis can be considered a net benefit to the local dependent communities whereas it may be a net loss to both the timber and tourism sectors. Conflict of interest in S. spectabilis management is discussed and possible solutions suggested. It was recommended that the threat of invasive species should be tackled through a multisectoral approach. / Dissertation (MSc)--University of Pretoria, 2009. / Agricultural Economics, Extension and Rural Development / unrestricted

Finding food in tropical forests poses a potentially major problem for chimpanzees, whose ranging is thought primarily to be directed at locating suitable food resources: (1) chimpanzees are frugivorous, large bodied and live in large home ranges; (2) they lack specialised sensory or locomotor abilities, and terrestrial travel is known to be costly; but (3) fruits are randomly distributed in space and time. Evidence from studies of captive individuals suggests chimpanzees are capable of remembering the locations of out of sight resources and can compute least distance routes to these resources, but whether this ability translates to the natural foraging behaviour of wild chimpanzees has never been investigated. My observational study was designed to assess how the chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii) of Budongo Forest, Uganda, locate these patchy resources. I mapped the routes of 14 focal individuals over a 12-month period. I considered how these foraging routes were structured by breaking the path into segments of travel between resources. Consecutive segments of travel between resources were found not to be independent, but assembled into "super-segments" that take in a number of resources along one trajectory. These super-segments are not necessarily directed towards feeding resources, however: travel is not always food directed. Comparisons of actual chimpanzee routes with randomly generated simulations suggest most individuals do not attempt to minimise their travel distances. There is evidence to suggest energetically stressed individuals can remember the locations of recently visited food resources and return to these patches in order to minimise travel distances when necessary, but overall, food is not difficult to find for this community of chimpanzees. I propose this is because males defend a territory with super-abundant food resources, meaning availability is not a limiting factor of foraging. Male chimpanzees can be characterised as convenience feeders, taking food whilst satisfying other, social needs.

The quokka (Setonix brachyurus Quoy & Gaimard 1830) is a medium-sized, macropodid marsupial that is endemic to the mesic, south-western corner of Australia. While being a tourist icon on Rottnest Island, the species is threatened with extinction. It has been intensively studied on Rottnest Island in the 1960s and 1970s, however very little is known of its ecology on the mainland. Additionally the insular and mainland environments are extremely different suggesting that ecological differences between the two populations are likely. Consequently, this study sought to determine the basic autecology of the quokka and identify what factors have attributed to its threatened conservation status. The northern jarrah forest of Western Australia was selected as the study region due to it being at the northern limit of extant quokka distribution and because it was thought that the factors threatening the quokka would be exacerbated there. Fossil deposits suggest that the quokka originally occupied an area of approximately 49,000 km2 in the south-western corner of Australia. Historical literature show that they were widespread and abundant when Europeans colonised the region in 1829 but a noticeable and dramatic decline occurred a century later. The arrival of the red fox to the region coincided almost exactly with this decline and so it was probably ultimately responsible. Continued predation by both it and the feral cat are likely to have continued the decline, along with habitat destruction and modification through altered fire regimes. Specific surveys and literature searches show that since the 1950s, the area occupied by the quokka has declined by 45% and since 1990 by 29%. Based on the criteria of the IUCN (Hilton-Taylor 2000), the conservation status of the quokka should remain as vulnerable. An endangered status may be more applicable if the quokkas restriction to patches through its existence as a metapopulation is considered. Trapping of eight sites supporting quokka populations in the mid-1990s revealed three sites now locally extinct despite the ongoing, six year old, fox control programme. Another three are at serious risk of extinction. Extant population sizes ranged from one to 36 and population density ranged from 0.07 to 4.3 individuals per hectare. This is considered to be below the carrying capacity of each site. The overall quokka population size in the northern jarrah forest may be as low as 150 adult individuals, of which half are likely to be female. Even the largest extant populations are highly susceptible to stochastic extinction events. This small size was surprising considering the six year old, introduced predator control programme. Historically, the restriction to discrete habitat patches, the occasional inter-patch movement, the lack of correlation between the dynamics of each population and reports of frequent localised extinctions and colonisations suggest that the quokka population once existed as part of a classic metapopulation. The massive decline of the quokka in the 1930s pushed the metapopulation structure into a non-equilibrium state such that today, the extant populations are the terminal remnants of the original classic metapopulation. Wild mainland quokkas breed throughout the year. A significant reduction in the number of births occurs over summer and this coincides with a decline in female body weight. Despite this, the mainland quokka is relatively fecund and is able to wean two offspring per year. The level of recruitment from pouch young to independence was low and this may explain the apparent lack of population increase following the initiation of fox control. A total of 56 trapped quokkas were fitted with a radio collar. Mean home range size for quokkas was 6.39 ha with a core range of 1.21 ha and this was negatively related to population density. Male home ranges were larger than females but not significantly when the sexual size dimorphism was considered. Nocturnal ranges were larger than diurnal ranges reflecting nocturnal departures from the swamp refugia. Home range sizes varied seasonally, probably due to changes in the distance required to move to obtain sufficient nutrients and water over the dry summer compared to the wet winter and spring. Telemetry confirmed trapping results that showed no movement between swamps or populations. Home range centres shifted to the periphery of the swamp following the winter inundation and this may increase the species susceptibility to predation. The lack of dispersal is probably caused by quokka populations existing below carrying capacity and following selection for philopatry under the threat of predation for dispersing individuals. Without dispersal to recolonise or rescue unpopulated patches, the collapse of the original quokka metapopulation appears to have occurred. On a macrohabitat scale, the quokka in the northern jarrah forest is restricted to Agonis swamp shrubland habitats that form in the open, upper reaches of creek systems on the western side of the forest. This restriction was probably initially due to the high water requirements of the quokka but is likely to have been exacerbated by increased predation pressure since the arrival of the fox. On a microhabitat scale, the quokka is a habitat specialist, preferring early seral stage swamp habitats, probably for foraging, as part of a mosaic of old age swamp that provides refuge. Despite the six year old, introduced predator control programme, foxes and cats are still the major cause of mortality to quokkas. Road kills was the other identifiable cause. Individuals alive at the start of the study had an 81% chance of staying alive until the end. The likelihood of dying was minimised by grouping together with conspecifics, maximising home range size and maximising the time spent within the swampy refuge. Current rates of adult and juvenile survivorship should allow population recovery and so it seems pouch young mortality, reflected by low recruitment, has inhibited the anticipated population increase following predator control. The confounding effect of inadequate unbaited controls meant that little statistical evidence was available on the impact of introduced predators on the quokka, however the models provided support for earlier hypotheses of these. The presence of a quokka population at a site was related to the amount of poison baits delivered ??? reflecting predation pressure, the average age of the swamp and a mosaic of early and late seral stages within the swamp habitat. Recently burnt habitat is thought to provide food for quokkas and long unburnt habitat provides refuge from predation.