The healthy development of a living cell requires precise spatial-temporal gene expression. The code that dictates when and where genes are expressed is stored in a pattern of specific sequence motifs, which can be recognised by transcription factors. Understanding the interaction between these DNA sequence motifs and transcription factors will help to elucidate how genomic sequences build transcriptional control networks. However, the DNA-binding specificities of ~1400 human transcription factors are largely unknown. The in vivo DNA-binding events of transcription factors involve great subtlety, because most transcription factors recognise degenerate sequence motifs and related transcription factors often prefer similar or even identical sequences. Forkhead transcription factors exemplify these challenges. To understand how members within the Forkhead transcription factor family gain their binding and functional specificities, we used chromatin immunoprecipitation coupled with high-throughput sequencing (ChIP-seq) to interrogate the genome-wide chromatin binding events of three Forkhead transcription factors: FOXM1, FOXO3 and FOXK2. We find that FOXM1 specifically binds to the promoters of a large array of genes whose activities peak at the G2 and M phases of the cell cycle. The canonical Forkhead consensus GTAAACA is not enriched within the FOXM1 cistrome. It gains its own specific binding events and biological functions by interacting and cooperating with the MMB complex. FOXO3 and FOXK2 are recruited to chromatin by the canonical Forkhead consensus GTAAACA, and they bind both shared and specific regions in the genome. FOXO3 mostly binds to the regions which are also bound by FOXK2, but no competitive or assisted binding between FOXO3 and FOXK2 is detected within those regions. Overall, these results help explain how individual members of the Forkhead transcription factor family gain binding specificity within the genome yet raises new questions of how functional specificity is achieved by other family members.

yes / The Forkhead transcription factor, FoxO3a induces genomic death responses in neurones following translocation from the cytosol to the nucleus. Nuclear translocation of FoxO3a is triggered by trophic factor withdrawal, oxidative stress and the stimulation of extrasynaptic NMDA receptors. Receptor activation of phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K)-Akt signalling pathways retains FoxO3a in the cytoplasm, thereby inhibiting the transcriptional activation of death-promoting genes. We hypothesized that phenolic antioxidants such as tert-Butylhydroquinone (tBHQ), which is known to stimulate PI3K-Akt signalling, would inhibit FoxO3a translocation and activity. Treatment of cultured cortical neurones with NMDA increased the nuclear localization of FoxO3a, reduced the phosphorylation of FoxO3a, increased caspase activity and up-regulated Fas ligand expression. In contrast the phenolic antioxidant, tBHQ, caused retention of FoxO3a in the cytosol coincident with enhanced PI3K- dependent phosphorylation of FoxO3a. tBHQ-induced nuclear exclusion of FoxO3a was associated with reduced FoxO-mediated transcriptional activity. Exposure of neurones to tBHQ inhibited NMDA-induced nuclear translocation of FoxO3a, prevented NMDA-induced up-regulation of FoxO-mediated transcriptional activity, blocked caspase activation and protected neurones from NMDA-induced excitotoxic death. Collectively, these data suggest that phenolic antioxidants such as tBHQ oppose stress-induced activation of FoxO3a and therefore have potential neuroprotective utility in neurodegeneration.

<p>Specification and differentiation of a cell is accomplished by changing its gene expression profiles. These processes require temporally and spatially regulated transcription factors (TFs), to induce the genes that are necessary to a specific cell type. In each cell a set of TFs interact with each other or activate their targets; as development progresses, transcription factors receive regulatory inputs from other TFs and a complex gene regulatory network (GRN) is generated. Adding complexity, each TF can be regulated not only at the transcriptional level, but also by translational, and post-translational mechanisms. Thus, understanding a developmental process requires understanding the interactions between TFs, signaling molecules and target genes which establish the GRN.</p><p>In this thesis, two genes, FoxN2/3, a TF and FGFR1, a component of the FGF signaling pathway are investigated. FoxN2/3 and FGFR1 have different mechanisms that function in sea urchin development; FoxN2/3 regulates gene expression and FGFR1 changes phosphorylation of target proteins. However, their ultimate goals are the same: changing the state of an earlier GRN into the next GRN state. </p><p>First, we characterize FoxN2/3 in the primary mesenchyme cell (PMC) GRN. Expression of foxN2/3 begins in the descendants of micromeres at the early blastula stage; and then is lost from PMCs at the mesenchyme blastula stage. foxN2/3 expression then shifts to the secondary mesenchyme cells (SMCs) and later to the endoderm. Here we show that, Pmar1, Ets1 and Tbr are necessary for activation of foxN2/3 in the descendants of micromeres. The later endomesoderm expression is independent of the earlier expression of FoxN2/3 in micromeres and independent of signals from PMCs. FoxN2/3 is necessary for several steps in the formation of larval skeleton. A number of proteins are necessary for skeletogenesis, and early expression of at least several of these is dependent on FoxN2/3. Furthermore, knockdown (KD) of FoxN2/3 inhibits normal PMC ingression. PMCs lacking FoxN2/3 protein are unable to join the skeletogenic syncytium and they fail to repress the transfating of SMCs into the skeletogenic lineage. Thus, FoxN2/3 must be present for the PMC GRN to control normal ingression, expression of skeletal matrix genes, prevention of transfating, and control fusion of the PMC syncytium.</p><p>Second, we show that the FGF-FGFR1 signaling is required for the oral-aboral axis formation in the sea urchin embryos. Without FGFR1, nodal is induced in all of the cells at the early blastula stage and this ectopic expression of nodal requires active p38 MAP kinase. The loss of oral restriction of nodal expression results in the abnormal organization of PMCs and the larval skeleton; it also induces ectopic expression of oral-specific genes and represses aboral-specific genes. The abnormal oral-aboral axis formation also affected fgf and vegf expression patterns; normally these factors are expressed in two restricted areas of the ectoderm between the oral and the aboral side, but when FGFR1 is knocked down, Nodal expands, and in response the expression of the FGF and VEGF ligands expands, and this in turn affects the abnormal organization of larval skeleton.</p> / Dissertation

Hcm1, es un factor transcripcional de la familia de los forkhead en Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Los factores forkhead se encuentran evolutivamente conservados, desde levaduras hasta humanos. En mamíferos estos factores regulan diversos procesos, entre ellos el ciclo celular, la supervivencia y la proliferación en respuesta a factores de crecimiento. Además, los factores FoxM, FoxO y sus ortólogos, participan en procesos como el envejecimiento y en enfermedades como el cáncer. Los estudios sobre Hcm1 en S. cerevisiae, indican que este factor es un regulador de la formación del spindle pole y de la expresión del cluster de genes necesarios en la fase S del ciclo celular. En el presente trabajo se estudió la regulación de Hcm1 sobre nuevos procesos celulares. En primer lugar, se demostró que Hcm1 regula positivamente la masa mitocondrial, el número de copias de ADN en esta organela y su actividad metabólica. Además, induce la metabolización de la glucosa favoreciendo el proceso oxidativo sobre la fermentación. Este cambio metabólico inducido por Hcm1, viene acompañado por una mayor resistencia celular al estrés. Además, se demostró que Hcm1 responde al estrés oxidativo aumentando su localización nuclear y su actividad transcripcional. Esta misma respuesta se observó cuando las células eran sometidas a restricción de glucosa o nitrógeno. En esta dirección estudiamos los mecanismos regulatorios de estas respuestas y se determinó que Sir2, una histona deacetilasa NAD+-dependiente relacionada con el envejecimiento y el silenciamiento genético, interacciona con Hcm1 y regula la respuesta a estrés de Hcm1. Paralelamente, analizamos la implicación de las vías AMPK y TOR/Sch9 en la regulación de Hcm1. De esta manera, demostramos que ambas vías son reguladoras de la respuesta de Hcm1 a restricción nutricional, ya que experimentos in vitro indicaron que Snf1 y Sch9 fosforilan Hcm1. El análisis de la expresión génica en la cepa salvaje y en el mutante hcm1, en diferentes puntos de la curva de crecimiento del cultivo, indicó que genes que se inducen durante esta cinética, y que están relacionados con el estrés y el metabolismo, son regulados por este factor. Los resultados obtenidos en este trabajo, permiten concluir que, además de su implicación en el ciclo celular, Hcm1 es un factor clave en la adaptación temprana de las células a la restricción nutricional y en la posterior entrada en fase diáuxica, a través de la inducción de metabolismo oxidativo mitocondrial y la respuesta a estrés. / Hcm1 is a forkhead transcription factor in Saccharomyces cerevisae. The forkhead factors are evolutionary conserved from yeast to human. In mammals, these factors regulate different processes, among them, cell cycle, cell survival and cell proliferation in response to growth factors. Moreover, FoxO, FoxM and their orthologues have been related to the aging process and cancer. Studies on Hcm1 in S. cerevisae indicate that this factor is related to spindle pole dynamics and the regulation of the cluster of genes required during the S phase of the cell cycle. In this work we studied Hcm1 implication on novel cellular processes. First, we demonstrated that Hcm1 positively regulates mitochondrial mass, mtDNA copy and mitochondrial activity. In addition, Hcm1 favours oxidative metabolism of glucose over its fermentation. This metabolic shift, is accompanied by an increase in cellular stress resistance. In response to oxidative stress treatments, Hcm1 shifts to the nucleus and its transcriptional activity is activated. A similar Hcm1 response was observed when the cells were submitted to glucose or nitrogen restriction. Additionally, we analyzed the regulatory mechanisms behind these responses. We demonstrated that Sir2, a NAD+ dependent histone deacetylase involved in aging and genetic silencing, interacts with Hcm1 and regulates its response to oxidative stress. In parallel, we analyzed the role of AMPK and TOR/Sch9 pathways on Hcm1 regulation. In this context, we observed that both pathways regulate Hcm1 in response to nutrient restriction in vivo. Moreover, Snf1 and Sch9 phosphorylate Hcm1 in vitro. Gene expression analysis on wild type cells and in hcm1 mutant at different points along the growth curve, indicated that genes that are upregulated during this kinetic and are related to stress response and metabolism, are regulated by Hcm1. Taken together, our results indicate that Hcm1 not only regulates cell cycle dynamics, but is also a key factor in the early adaptation of the cells to nutrient deficiency and later, to the entry into the diauxic phase. This adaptation is mediated by Hcm1 induction of oxidative metabolism and stress response.