Une simple classification morphologique des galaxies de l'Univers local montre deux grandes familles: (1) les galaxies disques, avec des bras spiraux et dans deux-tiers des cas une barre stellaire; et (2) les galaxies elliptiques et lenticulaires, dites galaxies de type précoce ou early-type galaxies (ETGs), qui sont dominées par une composante stellaire sphéroidale. Les galaxies les plus massives de l'Univers local sont les ETGs. Ces galaxies présentent aussi une large variété de dynamique stellaire: elles peuvent avoir un champ de vitesse régulier et aligné avec la photométrie ou perpendiculaire à la photométrie; ne présenter aucune rotation globale; ou alors être composées de deux disques en contre-rotation l'un par rapport à l'autre (Kinematically Distinct Core ou KDC). Ces signatures dans la dynamique stellaire des ETGs et leur importante masse sont des signes d'interactions passées, en particulier des signes de fusions de galaxies. Le but principal de ma thèse est d'analyser un large échantillon de simulations numériques à haute résolution de fusions binaires de galaxies. Ces fusions sont dites "idéalisées" car elles ne prennent pas en compte le contexte cosmologique de formation des galaxies : deux galaxies en isolation sont lancées sur une orbite permettant la fusion de ces galaxies, le résultat final attendu de la fusion étant une ETG. L'analyse statistique de ce large échantillon de simulations nous permet de relier les conditions initiales de la fusion à la galaxie finale. J'ai démontré que le rapport de masse entre les spirales initiales et que l'orientation de leurs moments angulaires sont des points essentiels à la formation des ETGs avec peu ou beaucoup de rotation et des KDCs. La morphologie de la spirale (rapport Bulbe/Disque) est aussi un point important pour la formation des KDC mais son impact n'est pas clair et de nouvelles simulations sont nécessaires pour conclure. Durant ma thèse, j'ai aussi étudié l'importance de la résolution dans les simulations numériques de fusion de galaxies. J'ai montré que le nombre de particules et la taille des cellules utilisées ont une importance prépondérante dans les résultats finaux. Une trop faible résolution (i.e. peu de particules et une grille grossière) ne permet pas de suivre l'évolution rapide du potentiel gravitationnel lors de la fusion. Dans ce cas, certaines particules n'évacuent pas leur moment angulaire vers l'extérieur de la galaxie: la galaxie résultante de la fusion garde ainsi une plus forte rotation. A haute résolution, la dispersion de ces orbites est résolue, la galaxie résultante possède donc une faible rotation et peut former, sous certaines conditions initiales, un KDC. / A simple morphological classification of the galaxies in the local Universe shows two main families: (1) the disc galaxies, with spiral arms and in two-thirds of these galaxies a stellar bar; and (2) the elliptical and lenticular galaxies, labelled early-type galaxies (ETGs), which are dominated by a spheroidal stellar component. ETGs are among the most massive galaxies of the local Universe and present a red color, meaning that their stars are old. These galaxies also present a large diversity of stellar dynamics: they may have a regular rotation pattern aligned with the photometry or perpendicular to it; they can present no global rotation at all; or may hold a central stellar component with a rotation axis distinct from the outer stellar body called a Kinematically Distinct Core (KDC). These features observed in the dynamics of the ETGs and their large mass are clearly signs of past interactions, especially signs of galaxy mergers. The main goal of my thesis is to analyse a large sample of high-resolution numerical simulations of binary galaxy mergers. These binary mergers are called "idealized" because they do not take into account the full cosmological context of galaxy formation: two isolated spiral galaxies are launched in an orbit resulting in a merger of the galaxies, the final remnant is an ETG. The statistical analysis of this large sample of simulations enables us to link the initial conditions of the merger to the final merger remnant. I demonstrated that the mass ratio between the spiral progenitors and the orientation of their spins of angular momentum are the main drivers for the formation of fast and slow rotating ETGs and the KDCs. The morphology of the initial spiral (Bulge/Disc ratio) seems also to play a major role for the formation of the different types of ETGs but its impact is not completelly clear, and other simulations are planned to clarify this problem. During my thesis, I also studied the importance of the resolution in the numerical simulations of galaxy mergers. I showed that the number of particles and the size of the computational grid have a predominant role in the final product of the merger. A too low resolution (i.e. too few particles and a coarse grid) can not follow the rapid evolution of the gravitational potential during the merger. In this case, the angular momentum is not as efficiently transfered to the outer parts of the galaxy: the merger remnant keeps thus a strong and regular rotation. At higher resolution, the scattering of the orbit is resolved and the merger remnant may end-up with, under some special initial conditions, a slow rotation and may form a KDC.

Lenticular and elliptical galaxies, collectively referred to as "early-type galaxies" (ETGs), are commonly thought to represent the end-points of galaxy evolution. Lying in the red sequence of galaxies, these objects are defined by their mostly old stellar populations and by their "red and dead" appearance in optical observations. Much progress in understanding these objects has been made with integral-field spectroscopy in recent years, with results repeatedly pointing to a link between early-type galaxies and high-redshift spiral galaxies. However, the exact nature of this link remains unclear, with a wide variety of evolution scenarios likely required to fully explain the range of observed early-type galaxy properties. In my study, I analysed observations of twelve early-type galaxies taken with the Mitchell Integral-Field Spectrograph at McDonald Observatory, Texas. These galaxies have previously been found to contain detectable quantities of neutral hydrogen gas, with ten out of the twelve displaying large-scale hydrogen disks. I extracted line-of-sight kinematics of the stellar and ionised gas components of these galaxies, and I used various modelling approaches to constrain their stellar population parameters as well as their three-dimensional mass structure in terms of both dark and visible components. An important feature of this study is the wide field of view of the spectroscopic observations, which reach beyond two half-light radii for almost all of the sample; this remains rare for integral-field unit (IFU) studies of ETGs, and so sets this study apart from most earlier works. The gas-rich nature of the sample is likewise novel. I find all aspects of my analysis to yield a consistent view of these galaxies' evolution, in which one or more gaseous interaction events served to shape them into their observed forms. I find these galaxies to contain low dark matter fractions on average within the inner half-light radius, and I also find mass modelling to favour near-isothermal total density profiles over much of the sample.

Une simple classification morphologique des galaxies de l'Univers local montre deux grandes familles: (1) les galaxies disques, avec des bras spiraux et dans deux-tiers des cas une barre stellaire; et (2) les galaxies elliptiques et lenticulaires, dites galaxies de type précoce ou early-type galaxies (ETGs), qui sont dominées par une composante stellaire sphéroidale. Les galaxies les plus massives de l'Univers local sont les ETGs. Ces galaxies présentent aussi une large variété de dynamique stellaire: elles peuvent avoir un champ de vitesse régulier et aligné avec la photométrie ou perpendiculaire à la photométrie; ne présenter aucune rotation globale; ou alors être composées de deux disques en contre-rotation l'un par rapport à l'autre (Kinematically Distinct Core ou KDC). Ces signatures dans la dynamique stellaire des ETGs et leur importante masse sont des signes d'interactions passées, en particulier des signes de fusions de galaxies. Le but principal de ma thèse est d'analyser un large échantillon de simulations numériques à haute résolution de fusions binaires de galaxies. Ces fusions sont dites "idéalisées" car elles ne prennent pas en compte le contexte cosmologique de formation des galaxies : deux galaxies en isolation sont lancées sur une orbite permettant la fusion de ces galaxies, le résultat final attendu de la fusion étant une ETG. L'analyse statistique de ce large échantillon de simulations nous permet de relier les conditions initiales de la fusion à la galaxie finale. J'ai démontré que le rapport de masse entre les spirales initiales et que l'orientation de leurs moments angulaires sont des points essentiels à la formation des ETGs avec peu ou beaucoup de rotation et des KDCs. La morphologie de la spirale (rapport Bulbe/Disque) est aussi un point important pour la formation des KDC mais son impact n'est pas clair et de nouvelles simulations sont nécessaires pour conclure. Durant ma thèse, j'ai aussi étudié l'importance de la résolution dans les simulations numériques de fusion de galaxies. J'ai montré que le nombre de particules et la taille des cellules utilisées ont une importance prépondérante dans les résultats finaux. Une trop faible résolution (i.e. peu de particules et une grille grossière) ne permet pas de suivre l'évolution rapide du potentiel gravitationnel lors de la fusion. Dans ce cas, certaines particules n'évacuent pas leur moment angulaire vers l'extérieur de la galaxie: la galaxie résultante de la fusion garde ainsi une plus forte rotation. A haute résolution, la dispersion de ces orbites est résolue, la galaxie résultante possède donc une faible rotation et peut former, sous certaines conditions initiales, un KDC.

A simple morphological classification of the galaxies in the local Universe shows two main families: (1) the disc galaxies, with spiral arms and in two-thirds of these galaxies a stellar bar; and (2) the elliptical and lenticular galaxies, labelled early-type galaxies (ETGs), which are dominated by a spheroidal stellar component. ETGs are among the most massive galaxies of the local Universe and present a red color, meaning that their stars are old. These galaxies also present a large diversity of stellar dynamics: they may have a regular rotation pattern aligned with the photometry or perpendicular to it; they can present no global rotation at all; or may hold a central stellar component with a rotation axis distinct from the outer stellar body called a Kinematically Distinct Core (KDC). These features observed in the dynamics of the ETGs and their large mass are clearly signs of past interactions, especially signs of galaxy mergers. The main goal of my thesis is to analyse a large sample of high-resolution numerical simulations of binary galaxy mergers. These binary mergers are called "idealized" because they do not take into account the full cosmological context of galaxy formation: two isolated spiral galaxies are launched in an orbit resulting in a merger of the galaxies, the final remnant is an ETG. The statistical analysis of this large sample of simulations enables us to link the initial conditions of the merger to the final merger remnant. I demonstrated that the mass ratio between the spiral progenitors and the orientation of their spins of angular momentum are the main drivers for the formation of fast and slow rotating ETGs and the KDCs. The morphology of the initial spiral (Bulge/Disc ratio) seems also to play a major role for the formation of the different types of ETGs but its impact is not completelly clear, and other simulations are planned to clarify this problem. During my thesis, I also studied the importance of the resolution in the numerical simulations of galaxy mergers. I showed that the number of particles and the size of the computational grid have a predominant role in the final product of the merger. A too low resolution (i.e. too few particles and a coarse grid) can not follow the rapid evolution of the gravitational potential during the merger. In this case, the angular momentum is not as efficiently transfered to the outer parts of the galaxy: the merger remnant keeps thus a strong and regular rotation. At higher resolution, the scattering of the orbit is resolved and the merger remnant may end-up with, under some special initial conditions, a slow rotation and may form a KDC.

O estudo de populações estelares em galáxias é particularmente interessante, uma vez que são um registro fóssil de vários processos físicos associados com a formação e evolução das galáxias. Neste trabalho são apresentados os resultados preliminares de uma nova abordagem para o estudo da distribuição de populações estelares no interior das galáxias. A partir das magnitudes ugriz de uma amostra de galáxias, utilizou-se a análise PCA e a determinação de diversos parâmetros para estudar a distribuição espacial das populações estelares nas galáxias. Utilizando uma abordagem píxel a píxel, as populações estelares são investigadas através da aplicação de variadas ferramentas estatísticas, tais como índices de Gini e Funcionais de Minkowski. Esta abordagem é um passo a frente no estudo de galáxias, no sentido que a análise pode ser aprofundada em cada píxel da galáxia, ao invés de estudar a galáxia como um todo. A aplicação de tal tratamento aos píxeis de uma imagem permite a obtenção de estimativas quantitativas sobre a forma como as diferentes populações estelares são distribuídos dentro de uma galáxia, trazendo dicas sobre como elas crescem e evoluem. Nossos resultados preliminares mostraram que uma metodologia píxel a píxel é eficiente no estudo das galáxias. Analisando 15 galáxias de tipos distintos, observou-se que as mesmas possuem populações estelares velhas no centro e novas nas regiões periféricas, corroborando com o cenário inside-out de formação de galáxias. Dada a potencialidade do método desenvolvido, pretende-se automatiza-lo para aplicação em dados de grandes surveys. / The study of stellar populations in galaxies is particularly interesting since they are a fossil record of various physical processes associated with the formation and evolution of galaxies. This work presents the preliminary results of a new approach to the study of the spatial distribution of stellar populations within a galaxy. From the ugriz magnitudes of a sample of galaxies, we used the PCA analysis and determination of various parameters to study the spatial distribution of the stellar populations in galaxies. Using a pixel by pixel approach, the stellar populations are investigated through the application of various statistical tools, such as Gini indexes and Minkowski Functional. This approach is a step forward in the study of galaxies, in the sense that the analysis can be deepened in each pixel of the galaxy, rather than studying the galaxy as a whole. The application of such treatment to the pixels of an image allows to obtain quantitative estimates on how the different stellar populations are distributed within a galaxy, bringing tips on how they grow and evolve. Our preliminary results showed that a pixel by pixel approach is efficient in the study of galaxies. Analyzing 15 galaxies of different types, we observed that they have old stellar populations in the central regions and younger stellar population in the peripheral regions, corroborating the scenario inside-out formation of galaxies. Given the potential of the developed method, the aim is automate and to apply it in data of large surveys.

O estudo de populações estelares em galáxias é particularmente interessante, uma vez que são um registro fóssil de vários processos físicos associados com a formação e evolução das galáxias. Neste trabalho são apresentados os resultados preliminares de uma nova abordagem para o estudo da distribuição de populações estelares no interior das galáxias. A partir das magnitudes ugriz de uma amostra de galáxias, utilizou-se a análise PCA e a determinação de diversos parâmetros para estudar a distribuição espacial das populações estelares nas galáxias. Utilizando uma abordagem píxel a píxel, as populações estelares são investigadas através da aplicação de variadas ferramentas estatísticas, tais como índices de Gini e Funcionais de Minkowski. Esta abordagem é um passo a frente no estudo de galáxias, no sentido que a análise pode ser aprofundada em cada píxel da galáxia, ao invés de estudar a galáxia como um todo. A aplicação de tal tratamento aos píxeis de uma imagem permite a obtenção de estimativas quantitativas sobre a forma como as diferentes populações estelares são distribuídos dentro de uma galáxia, trazendo dicas sobre como elas crescem e evoluem. Nossos resultados preliminares mostraram que uma metodologia píxel a píxel é eficiente no estudo das galáxias. Analisando 15 galáxias de tipos distintos, observou-se que as mesmas possuem populações estelares velhas no centro e novas nas regiões periféricas, corroborando com o cenário inside-out de formação de galáxias. Dada a potencialidade do método desenvolvido, pretende-se automatiza-lo para aplicação em dados de grandes surveys. / The study of stellar populations in galaxies is particularly interesting since they are a fossil record of various physical processes associated with the formation and evolution of galaxies. This work presents the preliminary results of a new approach to the study of the spatial distribution of stellar populations within a galaxy. From the ugriz magnitudes of a sample of galaxies, we used the PCA analysis and determination of various parameters to study the spatial distribution of the stellar populations in galaxies. Using a pixel by pixel approach, the stellar populations are investigated through the application of various statistical tools, such as Gini indexes and Minkowski Functional. This approach is a step forward in the study of galaxies, in the sense that the analysis can be deepened in each pixel of the galaxy, rather than studying the galaxy as a whole. The application of such treatment to the pixels of an image allows to obtain quantitative estimates on how the different stellar populations are distributed within a galaxy, bringing tips on how they grow and evolve. Our preliminary results showed that a pixel by pixel approach is efficient in the study of galaxies. Analyzing 15 galaxies of different types, we observed that they have old stellar populations in the central regions and younger stellar population in the peripheral regions, corroborating the scenario inside-out formation of galaxies. Given the potential of the developed method, the aim is automate and to apply it in data of large surveys.

This thesis presents spectroscopic observations of z ≥ 7 galaxy candidates in the Hubble Ultra Deep Field, which were selected with HST WFC3 imaging, using the Lyman-Break technique. Four z-band (z ≈ 7) dropout galaxies were targeted with Gemini/GNIRS, one z-band dropout galaxy and three Y -band (z ≈ 8 − 9) dropout galaxies with VLT/XSHOOTER, and 22 z-band dropouts with VLT/FORS2, where 15 of the latter are strong candidates. No evidence of Lyman-α emission is found, and the upper limits on the Lyman-α flux and the broad-band magnitudes are used to constrain the rest-frame equivalent widths for this line emission. Amongst the targeted objects, observations were made of HUDF.YD3, a relatively bright Y -band dropout galaxy likely to be at z ≈ 8 − 9 on the basis of its colours in the HST ACS and WFC3 images. Lehnert et al. (2010) observed this galaxy using the VLT/SINFONI integral field spectrograph and claim that it exhibits Lyman-α emission at z = 8.55. In observations of this object described in this thesis, which were made with VLT/XSHOOTER and Subaru/MOIRCS, this line was not reproduced despite the expected signal in the combined MOIRCS & XSHOOTER data being 5σ. Hence it appears unlikely that the reported Lyman-α line emission at z > 8 is real. Accounting for incomplete spectral coverage, in total (across all spectro- graphs) 9.63 z-band dropouts and 1.15 Y -band dropouts are surveyed to a Lyman-α rest-frame Equivalent Width better than 75 ̊A. A model where the fraction of high rest-frame equivalent width emitters follows the trend seen at z = 3−6.5 is inconsistent with these non-detections at z = 7−9 at a confidence level of ∼ 91%, which may indicate that a significant neutral HI fraction (χHI) in the intergalactic medium suppresses the Lyman-α line at z > 7. In particular, the lack of detection of Lyman-α emission in this spectroscopy is compared with results at lower redshift by Stark et al. (2010), who derive a mapping between Lyman-α fractions and χHI based on radiative transfer simulations by McQuinn et al. (2007). These results suggest a lower limit of χHI ~ 0.5.

L'etude des raies d'absorption dans le spectre des quasars constitue<br />aujourd'hui un des outils majeurs de l'observation des galaxies au<br />cours de leur formation et de leur evolution. En effet, ces raies<br />revelent le gaz interpose tout au long de la ligne de visee entre le<br />quasar et l'observateur. Les systemes avec les plus grandes densites<br />de colonne, les sytemes lorentziens (DLAs), ont une densite de colonne<br />en hydrogene neutre superieure a 2 * 10^20 atomes cm^-2. Ces<br />absorbants ont longtemps ete consideres comme les precurseurs des<br />galaxies spirales observees a faible decalage spectral (z), meme si<br />certains travaux semblent indiquer qu'ils pourraient etre constitues<br />en majorite de galaxies naines riches en gaz, elements de base de la<br />formation hierarchique des structures. L'observation de ces systemes<br />etant independante de leur taille, forme ou facteur de recouvrement,<br />ils fournissent des informations complementaires a l'etude de<br />l'emission propre des galaxies. Les systemes Lyman limit (LLSs)<br />possedent une densite de colonne N(HI) > 1.6 * 10^17 atomes cm^-2. A<br />z<1, ils sont probablement associes aux halos des galaxies. Enfin, les<br />nombreux systemes avec les plus petites densites de colonne (10^12 -<br />10^17 atomes cm^-2) constituent "la foret Lyman-alpha".<br /><br /><br />Cette these presente un echantillon de 66 quasars brillants a z>4,<br />observes avec le telescope de 4 m "Cerro Tololo Inter-American" et<br />le telescope de 4,2 m "William Herschel". En premier lieu, l'etude<br />consiste en l'analyse des quasars a l'aide de la modelisation de<br />l'emission continue du quasar, et de la mesure des parametres de<br />depression du continu qui quantifient l'absorption moyenne dans la<br />region de la foret Lyman-alpha. Les spectres de quasars sont ensuite<br />analyses de maniere a etudier les absorbants qu'ils contiennent. Ces<br />donnees menent a la construction d'un echantillon de 26 nouveaux<br />systemes lorentziens lointains et 34 nouveaux systemes Lyman limit<br />ainsi que de nombreux systemes metalliques associes. Cet ensemble de<br />donnees permettent de determiner la distribution de la densite de<br />colonne, f(N,z), ainsi que la masse totale d'hydrogene neutre contenue<br />dans les absorbants de grande densite de colonne. Le nombre de LLSs<br />observes par unite de decalage spectral permet de contraindre f(N,z)<br />en-dessous de la limite des DLAs, dans l'intervalle N(HI) = 1,6 *<br />10^17 a 2 * 10^20 atomes cm^-2. L'analyse demontre sans ambiguite que<br />f(N,z) diverge d'une loi de puissance et qu'une distribution gamma<br />f(N,z) = (f_*/N_*)(N/N_*)^(-beta) exp(-N/N_*) represente de maniere<br />plus precise les observations. Ces resultats sont ensuite utilises<br />pour determiner la quantite de gaz neutre contenue dans les systemes<br />DLAs ainsi que dans les absorbants avec N(HI) > 2 * 10^19 atoms cm^-2<br />(systemes "sous-lorentziens"). Dans l'intervalle de decalage<br />spectral 2 - 3, 85% de la densite en masse HI + He II se trouve dans<br />les DLAs. Cependant, a z>3,5, nous trouvons que cette fraction est<br />seulement de 55%, le reste de la masse se trouvant dans les systemes<br />sous-lorentziens. Apres avoir corrige la masse HI observee en prenant<br />en compte ce gaz neutre "manquant", la densite comobile en masse ne<br />presente plus de decroissance dans l'intervalle z = 2 - 5 par rapport<br />aux etudes anterieures ne considerant pas les systemes<br />sous-lorentziens. Le changement dans la distribution de densite de<br />colonne suggere qu'a z>3,5, nous observons directement la formation<br />des systemes de grande densite de colonne HI a partir de systemes de<br />densite de colonne plus petites. Enfin, nous presentons nos<br />predictions concernant l'evolution de la densite en nombre de systemes<br />sous-lorentziens avec le decalage spectral. Des resultats<br />preliminaires de cette mesure a partir de donnees d'archives echelle<br />UVES semblent etre en accord avec ces predictions.