The introduction of No Child Left Behind increased performance expectations for students across the United States and compelled teachers to focus on standardized assessments instead of frequent formative assessments to monitor instruction and promote student learning. Common formative assessments (CFAs) help teachers align curriculum, assessment, and instruction while building the collective knowledge of the professional learning communities (PLCs). This qualitative case study analyzed the collaborative processes used by five sixth grade math teachers and one instructional coach (IC) at a Title I middle in the Southern United States to align the rigor between learning objectives, PLC-developed CFAs and classroom instruction. Of the teachers selected for the case study, the most experienced teacher had 35 years of teaching experience while the least experienced had two years of experience. This case study sought to answer the following overarching question: What collaborative processes are used to build CFAs in a PLC comprised of five sixth grade math teachers and one instructional coach at a Title I middle school in the Southern United States. The following sub-questions were also addressed: 1. What professional dialogue occurs when the sixth grade math PLC collaborates to develop CFAs that align with the rigor of TEKS and STAAR? 2. What resources does the sixth grade math PLC use to develop CFAs that align with the rigor of the TEKS and STAAR? Data was collected during collaborative CFA development sessions, eJournal reflection notes, one focus group, and supplemental documents from participants. Qualitative data analysis techniques included combing through the data for codes and using constant comparative analysis to determine main and sub-themes. The findings discovered that the sixth grade math PLC was methodical in their protocols to build CFAs. The progression from beginning to end involved deconstructing the TEKS, sharing instructional strategies, identifying anticipated student misconceptions and posing reflective questions to the group. The results of the case study revealed that the processes involved in creating CFAs were strategically implemented in a way that promoted precise alignment between curriculum, assessment, and instruction.

The study examined the relationship between grade five natural sciences teachers’ perceptions and their use of questioning for formative assessment (FA). Literature indicates that formative assessment improves both teaching and learning. This study was conducted with thirty-three teachers from a district in Gauteng Province. They responded to a questionnaire in which they gave their opinions about questions and formative assessment. Their responses were documented quantitatively. Lesson observations were also conducted in two teachers’ classes, in the same district, to establish the relationship between questioning practices and perceptions. Teacher questions were quantitatively analysed using Anderson/Bloom’s Taxonomy (2005). Lesson transcripts and field notes of the recorded lessons were qualitatively analysed and discussed in themes. Findings based on the questionnaire indicated that most teachers had a poor understanding of formative assessment and were unaware of its teaching and learning benefits. In practice, the two observed teachers mostly used factual and conceptual knowledge questions but worked differently with learner responses. The observations indicate that questions, irrespective of their categorisation, could be more effectively used for formative assessment purposes. The study indicated that teachers believed that a role is played in the questioning practices by, for instance, learner language competency, socio-economic factors and lack of teacher reflection.

A self-study at a local elementary school revealed that homework assignments appeared to be at lower levels of Bloom’s taxonomy, and students were inadequately prepared for summative assessments that required the application and critical thinking levels of Bloom’s taxonomy. Formative assessment data, ideally, drives teachers’ instructional decisions in the classroom. The purpose of this qualitative case study was to better understand the formative assessment processes that drive instructional decision making. The conceptual framework by Chappuis and influenced by Black and Wiliam includes the strategic process for successful formative assessment teaching and learning. The research questions explored the use of homework as a formative assessment in classrooms. In this intrinsic case study, data collection included face to face interviews with 10 general education Grade 3-5 teachers in 2 different schools within the same, a 2- week document analysis of homework assigned in language arts and mathematics, and a focus group of participants. The data were analyzed with open coding followed by axial coding to determine themes. Member checking and triangulation were used to ensure validity and accuracy. The themes that emerged from the coded data identified ineffective teacher use of feedback, self-assessment, and learning targets—essential practices of the formative assessment process. Improving the formative assessment process for teaching and learning may encourage positive social change through promoting teacher selfefficacy and collaboration through a professional development paired with a professional learning community. This study may also lead teachers to change their formative assessment processes and provide guided instruction that enhances student learning outcomes.

<p>I have made interviews with a teacher and with pupils from the lower grades in a school dominated by pupils with Swedish as their second language, about the role and effects of assessment with particular focus on the subject of <em>mathematics</em>. I have also studied the policy documents (“kursplanen”) for the subjects of Swedish and mathematics. The formulations of the learning goals in Swedish are differentiated, so that the demands are somewhat lower for pupils with Swedish as their <em>second language</em>. In mathematics, however, the learning goals are the same for all pupils, and they include the ability to communicate mathematical concepts in meaningful and relevant situations. The language of this communication is supposed to be Swedish, and the cultural code necessary to find the situation meaningful and relevant is often Swedish. The textbooks in mathematics for the early grades are oriented towards the learning goals, and contain many problems formulated in plain Swedish language, and with meaning and relevance often oriented to assumed fruit distribution habits among culturally Swedish children. This creates a problem with assessments in mathematics for many pupils with Swedish as their second language. They often feel that the assessments in mathematics are <em>unfair</em>, if they already know the numerical system and could have solved the problem, had it been given to them in a more simplified language. There is a risk that these pupils give up on the subject of mathematics too early, and for linguistic and cultural reasons. My research has shown that some of these pupils even question the mathematical ability of their teacher, because they can so easily check the numerical results on their pocket calculators, and at the same time find the verbal explanations of the teacher so difficult to understand. The problems resulting from the discrepancy between the learning goals in Swedish and mathematics, are aggravated by the recently introduced national tests in the third grade, witch give an official stamp on the use of <em>summative assessment</em> in the form of mathematical tests that includes verbally and culturally demanding problems. What the individual teacher in mathematics can do under these circumstances, is exploiting the rights and demands for <em>individualization of learning</em> to the outmost for pupils with Swedish as their second language. Children who in the future are going to use their mathematical skills and abilities professionally in the Swedish society certainly have to learn the appropriate words, as well as the cultural codes for the Swedish way of formulating mathematical problems. But their roads to achieving these particular goals in the national learning plan for mathematics, will in various ways be different from that of pupils with Swedish as their first language. The advent of national tests in mathematics in the third grade makes it even more important for the teacher to focus on the use of <em>formative assessments</em>, that make temporary allowance for the pupils present shortcomings in the linguistic and cultural understanding of mathematics, while at the same time setting up personal and individualized learning goals, aimed at overcoming these shortcomings.</p>

I have made interviews with a teacher and with pupils from the lower grades in a school dominated by pupils with Swedish as their second language, about the role and effects of assessment with particular focus on the subject of mathematics. I have also studied the policy documents (“kursplanen”) for the subjects of Swedish and mathematics. The formulations of the learning goals in Swedish are differentiated, so that the demands are somewhat lower for pupils with Swedish as their second language. In mathematics, however, the learning goals are the same for all pupils, and they include the ability to communicate mathematical concepts in meaningful and relevant situations. The language of this communication is supposed to be Swedish, and the cultural code necessary to find the situation meaningful and relevant is often Swedish. The textbooks in mathematics for the early grades are oriented towards the learning goals, and contain many problems formulated in plain Swedish language, and with meaning and relevance often oriented to assumed fruit distribution habits among culturally Swedish children. This creates a problem with assessments in mathematics for many pupils with Swedish as their second language. They often feel that the assessments in mathematics are unfair, if they already know the numerical system and could have solved the problem, had it been given to them in a more simplified language. There is a risk that these pupils give up on the subject of mathematics too early, and for linguistic and cultural reasons. My research has shown that some of these pupils even question the mathematical ability of their teacher, because they can so easily check the numerical results on their pocket calculators, and at the same time find the verbal explanations of the teacher so difficult to understand. The problems resulting from the discrepancy between the learning goals in Swedish and mathematics, are aggravated by the recently introduced national tests in the third grade, witch give an official stamp on the use of summative assessment in the form of mathematical tests that includes verbally and culturally demanding problems. What the individual teacher in mathematics can do under these circumstances, is exploiting the rights and demands for individualization of learning to the outmost for pupils with Swedish as their second language. Children who in the future are going to use their mathematical skills and abilities professionally in the Swedish society certainly have to learn the appropriate words, as well as the cultural codes for the Swedish way of formulating mathematical problems. But their roads to achieving these particular goals in the national learning plan for mathematics, will in various ways be different from that of pupils with Swedish as their first language. The advent of national tests in mathematics in the third grade makes it even more important for the teacher to focus on the use of formative assessments, that make temporary allowance for the pupils present shortcomings in the linguistic and cultural understanding of mathematics, while at the same time setting up personal and individualized learning goals, aimed at overcoming these shortcomings.

Thinking Skills has, since its conception as a teachable subject, been difficult to assess due to lack of a universal definition of Thinking Skills. McMahon (1999) warns that the chosen strategy for assessing Thinking Skills must itself promote and reward thinking skills. Self- and Peer- assessment are the methods of assessment proposed by Costa and Kallick (2000) for the assessment of their Thinking Skills programme, Habits of Mind. This study investigates the diversity of perceptions which can be generated through self-, peer- and teacher-assessment, and how a balance can be struck between them through incorporating dialogue into assessment. 12 Grade 8 learners who study Habits of Mind as a school subject in a South African all-girls' private school participated in 4 assessment tasks. For each task, participants were assessed by a peer, a teacher and themselves. After each task, all participants reflected on the rubrics from all three assessors. Participants in this study demonstrated more extensive learning across Anderson's (2010) Dimensions of Growth when they engaged in reflective dialogue compared to when they engaged in written reflections. Through dialogue, learners were empowered as role-players in their own assessment and became able to shift their own perspective to include the perspectives of others. Dialogical Assessment also facilitated the development of meta-cognition in participants.

This study sought to improve the learning outcomes at the Missionary Training Center in Provo, Utah. Here, missionary trainees aged 19-24 are taught language and doctrine in an accelerated environment. In an effort to improve learning outcomes, the effect of formative feedback provided to students and summary feedback provided to teachers was assessed in a 2x2 factorial design with a separate control group. Four dependent variables were assessed including (a) doctrinal knowledge, (b) knowledge of teaching principles, (c) language grammar, and (d) ability to speak in a foreign language. The results showed that students who received immediate formative feedback outperformed students who did not receive such feedback. However, providing summary feedback to teachers did not lead to an increase in achievement. The interaction effect was not statistically significant. The results indicated that students who completed formative assessments significantly outperformed students who did not complete such assessments.

This study sought to improve the language learning outcomes at the Missionary Training Center in Provo, Utah. Young men and women between the ages of 19-24 are taught a foreign language in an accelerated environment. In an effort to improve learning outcomes, computer-based practice and teaching of language performance criteria were provided to missionaries in an effort to allow them to progress at their own pace outside of the classroom. The effect of computer-based practice and the teaching of language performance criteria were assessed in a 2x2 factorial design. The dependent variable was speaking proficiency in the Spanish language. This variable was assessed in two different ways: (a) human-rated speaking proficiency and (b) computer-scored speaking proficiency. Results suggest that the teaching of language performance criteria increases speaking proficiency over those who are not taught the criteria. Missionary trainee responses also indicate that the training of criteria helped the trainees to evaluate their own performance and the performance of other language speakers. Missionary trainees also reported that this training helped them to see their own progress and to set appropriate learning goals.

The intense focus on standards and accountability is rapidly altering the education environment. Often the gauge for measuring school effectiveness is performance on high- stake state tests. In this retrospective cohort comparison study, I observe the relation between the use of curriculum-based measures (CBMs) for reading and change on a state test for reading after implementation of systematic decision making (SDM). Over a span of three years, two student cohorts in two elementary schools were observed. In each two-year cohort, students began in third and then moved to fourth grade: Cohort One (2009 - 2011) and Cohort Two (2010 - 2012). Both cohorts participated in fall, winter, and spring [F-W-S] benchmark screening for Passage Reading Fluency (PRF) and took a state test. Additionally, during the 2011-2012 academic year, SDM was implemented for Cohort Two using reading CBMs. This study addressed three questions: (a) What is the affect on reading growth (OAKS-Reading) in the context of SDM with CBMs? (b) What is the correlation between [F-W-S] PRF and OAKS Reading? and (c) What is the relation between within-year growth rates for students at risk and not at risk in the context of SDM with CBMs? I used an independent samples t-test to examine the across year change in reading for both cohorts (OAKS-Reading) to determine whether the implementation of SDM resulted in a significant difference between cohorts. For Cohort Two (using a SDM model), I correlated benchmark screening within-year measures (easyCBM) and OAKS Reading. Finally, I calculated growth rates for at-risk and not-at-risk students within a SDM model to examine whether that model demonstrated evidence of accelerated growth in at-risk students relative to their not-at-risk peers. Results did not indicate a strong relation between SDM and the large-scale, outcome assessment (OAKS-Reading). A Pearson product-moment correlation indicated a strong positive correlation between the formative measure PRF and the large-scale, outcome assessment OAKS-Reading. Results showed both risk categories had accelerated growth in reading fluency between fall and winter compared to between winter and spring. Implications for school practice and research are discussed.