Thesis (M.Sc. (Pharmaceutics))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2008.

5-Fluorouracil (5FU) is a pyrimidine analogue, indicated for the therapy of proliferative skin diseases such as actinic keratosis (AK), superficial basal cell carcinoma and psoriasis. It has also been used for the treatment of solid tumours like colorectal, breast and liver carcinomas for nearly 40 years. Although 5FU has always been administered parenterally and orally, metabolism is rapid and absorption is erratic. Several severe side-effects are also commonly associated with 5FU therapy, including myelosuppression, hand-foot syndrome and gastrointestinal effects. Seeing that 5FU is an important part of the treatment of several malignant and pre-malignant disorders, it would be advantageous to find a delivery route and delivery system that negate absorption and metabolic variation and decrease side-effects. The transdermal route provides a promising alternative to the above-mentioned conventional delivery routes, solving most of the problems associated with parenteral and oral administration. That being said, the formidable barrier situated in the skin is not easily breached. The stratum corneum, the outermost skin layer, is mostly lipophilic in nature, preventing hydrophilic molecules such as 5FU from entering. 5FU-containing creams and lotions are currently commercially available, but absorption is still very limited. The transdermal absorption from these formulations has been compared to that obtained with the use of new transdermal delivery vehicles, with the newer formulations proving to be promising. It was decided to entrap 5FU in a novel therapeutic system, in the form of the Pheroid™ system, to increase its transdermal penetration. Pheroid™ vesicles are stable spherical structures in a unique, emulsion-like formulation, and fall in the submicron range. The main components of the Pheroid™ system are the ethyl esters of the essential fatty acids linoleic acid and linolenic acid, as well as the cys-form of oleic acid, and water. The formulation is saturated with nitrous oxide (N20). Although Pheroid™ vesicles may resemble other lipid-based vehicles, such as liposomes and micro-emulsions, they are unique in the sense that they have inherent therapeutic qualities as well. The Pheroid™ formulation can be specifically manipulated to yield different types of vesicles, ensuring a fast transport rate, high entrapment efficiency, rapid delivery and stability of the delivery system for a specific drug. In this study, 5FU was entrapped in the Pheroid™ formulation. Transdermal permeation studies were then performed to evaluate the influence of this delivery system on the transdermal flux of 5FU. Vertical Franz diffusion cells were utilised to determine the transdermal penetration of 5FU. Only Caucasian female abdominal skin was used to minimise physiological variables. Diffusion studies were done over 12 hour periods, with the entire receptor phase being withdrawn at predetermined intervals. Samples were analysed using high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), after which the cumulative concentration of active was plotted against time. The linear portion of this graph represents the flux of 5FU through the skin. It was found that there were differences in the results between formulations containing 5FU in a phosphate buffer solution (PBS)-based Pheroid™ and water-based Pheroid™, though the difference was not statistically significant. The 0.5 % 5FU in water-based Pheroid™ resulted in a significantly bigger yield than the control (1 % 5FU in water) as well as a significant difference to the 1 % 5FU in PBS-based Pheroid™ formulation. In general the water-based Pheroid™ formulations had greater average cumulative concentrations, yields and fluxes than the other formulations. The fluxes obtained with the water-based Pheroid™ formulations also correlated well with a previous study done by Kilian (2004). Thus it can be concluded that the Pheroid™ therapeutic delivery system enhances the transdermal penetration of 5FU. Water-based Pheroid™ formulations proved to be more effective than PBS-based Pheroid™ formulations. It can also be concluded that a 0.5 % 5FU in water-based Pheroid™ formulation can be used instead of a 1 % formulation, because there were no statistically significant differences between the two formulations. This would be advantageous - patient compliance can be enhanced because of a more tolerable formulation with fewer side effects, while manufacturing cost is lowered by using a lower concentration of active. It is recommended that some aspects of the study be investigated further to optimise the transdermal delivery of 5FU using the Pheroid™ therapeutic system. These aspects include optimising the composition of the Pheroid formulation, investigating the entrapment process of 5FU within Pheroid™ spheres, the influence of PBS and water as basis of the Pheroid™ formulation and the amount of 5FU remaining in the epidermis after the 12 hour period of the diffusion study. Keywords: 5-Fluorouracil, Franz diffusion cell, Heat separated epidermis, Skin penetration, Transdermal, Drug delivery system, Pheroid™ / Thesis (M.Sc. (Pharmaceutics))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2008.

5-Fluorouracil (5FU) is a pyrimidine analogue, indicated for the therapy of proliferative skin diseases such as actinic keratosis (AK), superficial basal cell carcinoma and psoriasis. It has also been used for the treatment of solid tumours like colorectal, breast and liver carcinomas for nearly 40 years. Although 5FU has always been administered parenterally and orally, metabolism is rapid and absorption is erratic. Several severe side-effects are also commonly associated with 5FU therapy, including myelosuppression, hand-foot syndrome and gastrointestinal effects. Seeing that 5FU is an important part of the treatment of several malignant and pre-malignant disorders, it would be advantageous to find a delivery route and delivery system that negate absorption and metabolic variation and decrease side-effects. The transdermal route provides a promising alternative to the above-mentioned conventional delivery routes, solving most of the problems associated with parenteral and oral administration. That being said, the formidable barrier situated in the skin is not easily breached. The stratum corneum, the outermost skin layer, is mostly lipophilic in nature, preventing hydrophilic molecules such as 5FU from entering. 5FU-containing creams and lotions are currently commercially available, but absorption is still very limited. The transdermal absorption from these formulations has been compared to that obtained with the use of new transdermal delivery vehicles, with the newer formulations proving to be promising. It was decided to entrap 5FU in a novel therapeutic system, in the form of the Pheroid™ system, to increase its transdermal penetration. Pheroid™ vesicles are stable spherical structures in a unique, emulsion-like formulation, and fall in the submicron range. The main components of the Pheroid™ system are the ethyl esters of the essential fatty acids linoleic acid and linolenic acid, as well as the cys-form of oleic acid, and water. The formulation is saturated with nitrous oxide (N20). Although Pheroid™ vesicles may resemble other lipid-based vehicles, such as liposomes and micro-emulsions, they are unique in the sense that they have inherent therapeutic qualities as well. The Pheroid™ formulation can be specifically manipulated to yield different types of vesicles, ensuring a fast transport rate, high entrapment efficiency, rapid delivery and stability of the delivery system for a specific drug. In this study, 5FU was entrapped in the Pheroid™ formulation. Transdermal permeation studies were then performed to evaluate the influence of this delivery system on the transdermal flux of 5FU. Vertical Franz diffusion cells were utilised to determine the transdermal penetration of 5FU. Only Caucasian female abdominal skin was used to minimise physiological variables. Diffusion studies were done over 12 hour periods, with the entire receptor phase being withdrawn at predetermined intervals. Samples were analysed using high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), after which the cumulative concentration of active was plotted against time. The linear portion of this graph represents the flux of 5FU through the skin. It was found that there were differences in the results between formulations containing 5FU in a phosphate buffer solution (PBS)-based Pheroid™ and water-based Pheroid™, though the difference was not statistically significant. The 0.5 % 5FU in water-based Pheroid™ resulted in a significantly bigger yield than the control (1 % 5FU in water) as well as a significant difference to the 1 % 5FU in PBS-based Pheroid™ formulation. In general the water-based Pheroid™ formulations had greater average cumulative concentrations, yields and fluxes than the other formulations. The fluxes obtained with the water-based Pheroid™ formulations also correlated well with a previous study done by Kilian (2004). Thus it can be concluded that the Pheroid™ therapeutic delivery system enhances the transdermal penetration of 5FU. Water-based Pheroid™ formulations proved to be more effective than PBS-based Pheroid™ formulations. It can also be concluded that a 0.5 % 5FU in water-based Pheroid™ formulation can be used instead of a 1 % formulation, because there were no statistically significant differences between the two formulations. This would be advantageous - patient compliance can be enhanced because of a more tolerable formulation with fewer side effects, while manufacturing cost is lowered by using a lower concentration of active. It is recommended that some aspects of the study be investigated further to optimise the transdermal delivery of 5FU using the Pheroid™ therapeutic system. These aspects include optimising the composition of the Pheroid formulation, investigating the entrapment process of 5FU within Pheroid™ spheres, the influence of PBS and water as basis of the Pheroid™ formulation and the amount of 5FU remaining in the epidermis after the 12 hour period of the diffusion study. Keywords: 5-Fluorouracil, Franz diffusion cell, Heat separated epidermis, Skin penetration, Transdermal, Drug delivery system, Pheroid™ / Thesis (M.Sc. (Pharmaceutics))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2008.

Transdermal drug delivery (TDD) is limited by high resistance of the outer layer of the skin, namely stratum corneum which blocks any molecule that is larger than 500 Da. Research on TDD has become very active in recent years and various technologies have been developed to overcome the resistance of the stratum corneum. In particular, researchers have started to consider the possibility of combining the TDD technologies in order to achieve further increment for drug permeability. Microneedles (MNs) and sonophoresis are both promising technologies that can perform notable enhancement in drug permeation via different mechanisms and therefore give a good potential for combining with each other. We discuss the possible ways to achieve this combination as well as how this combination would increase the permeability. Some of the undeveloped (weaker) research areas of MNs and sonophoresis are also discussed in order to understand the true potential of combining the two technologies when they are developed further in the future. We propose several hypothetical combinations based on the possible mechanisms of MNs and sonophoresis.

No description available.

Vesicular delivery systems, like liposomes, represent an attractive approach to improving skin delivery of drugs. Liposomes are composed of one or several lipid bilayers surrounding an aqueous compartment. They are able to encapsulate hydrophilic compounds into their inner compartment and lipophilic compounds into their lipid bilayers. In the first part of this thesis, we developed a new dermal delivery system combining the advantages of cyclodextrin inclusion complexes and those of deformable liposomes. This system was called drugs-in-cyclodextrin-in-deformable liposome. Betamethasone was chosen as the model drug. These systems were successfully developed and characterised. In vitro diffusion studies using Franz diffusion cells and polycarbonate membranes gave promising results. In order to better mimic the in vivo conditions, ex vivo penetration studies using pig ear skin and Franz diffusion cells were developed. The tape stripping method was used to determine the amount of drug in the stratum corneum. The amount of drug in the epidermis, dermis and receptor medium was also assayed. These methods were successfully validated. Unfortunately, ex vivo penetration studies of the developed skin delivery system could not confirm the promising in vitro results. Our research was then directed towards studies allowing a better understanding of liposome skin penetration mechanisms. In the second part of this thesis, the influence of several parameters on the skin penetration behaviour of liposomes was investigated. The formulation importance on skin penetration efficiency was highlighted by the comparison of two liposomal systems. In the first system, betamethasone is encapsulated by the help of cyclodextrin inclusion complexes in the aqueous compartment. In the second system, betamethasone is encapsulated alone in the lipid bilayer. The second system shows high membrane permeability of the encapsulated betamethasone. Despite this decreased drug retention, the second system enhances the skin penetration of betamethasone. This high membrane permeability and the better penetration of the second formulation support the mechanism of penetration as a free drug substance. In addition, no difference in penetration is observed between liposomes containing betamethasone alone and a non liposomal dispersion. Several surfactants or edge activators were incorporated in the lipid bilayer of liposomes in order to obtain deformable liposomes. Unfortunately, these deformable liposomes are unable to enhance skin penetration compared to classical non deformable liposomes. The addition of charged lipids in the lipid bilayer of liposomes encapsulating either betamethasone or betamethasone dipropionate was investigated. The addition of negatively charged lipids enhances the penetration of the encapsulated drug. The use of negatively charged liposomes enhanced the epidermis accumulation of betamethasone 9.3 times compared with the ethanolic solution. This improvement is not observed with the corresponding non liposomal dispersion, indicating that the vesicle form is of high importance. In the case of the ester, the use of negatively charged liposomes enhances the epidermis accumulation 5.5 times compared with the Diprosone® lotion and only 1.6 times compared with the ethanolic solution. The penetration of a more lipophilic drug, with a high intrinsic penetration, is less enhanceable when incorporated in liposomes. Confocal microscopy was performed to visualise skin penetration of fluorescently labelled liposomes. The lipophilic dye rhodamine B encapsulated in the lipid bilayer as betamethasone penetrates the epidermis at the same level as NBD-phosphatidylcholine. On the other hand, the hydrophilic dye calcein encapsulated in the aqueous compartment as betamethasone-cyclodextrin complexes does not penetrate the epidermis. These observations seem to confirm the ex vivo results. In addition, the skin penetration of rhodamine B seems to be improved by the incorporation in negatively charged liposomes compared with classical ones. Finally, the efficiency of the negatively charged vesicles was evaluated in vivo on volunteers by the skin blanching assay. Carbomer gel containing the negatively charged vesicles seems to enhance the blanching response of encapsulated betamethasone in comparison with the ethanolic hydroxypropylcellulose gel. However, results are not significantly different. This could be explained by the small number of volunteers. On the other hand, in the case of formulations containing betamethasone dipropionate, no tendency could be highlighted. These results seem to confirm that the use of negatively charged liposomes is more attractive for improving the efficiency of a lesser lipophilic drug, betamethasone, in comparison with the more lipophilic ester, betamethasone dipropionate. These results need to be confirmed using a higher number of volunteers./ Les systèmes vésiculaires, comme les liposomes, représentent une approche intéressante pour améliorer ladministration cutanée de médicaments. Les liposomes sont des vésicules sphériques composées dune ou plusieurs bicouches lipidiques entourant une cavité aqueuse. Ils sont capables dencapsuler des molécules hydrophiles dans leur cavité aqueuse, ainsi que de retenir des molécules hydrophobes dans leur bicouche lipidique. Dans la première partie de la thèse, nous nous sommes intéressés au développement dun nouveau système dadministration cutanée combinant les avantages des complexes dinclusion dans les cyclodextrines et ceux des liposomes déformables, aboutissant à un nouveau concept appelé : « drugs-in-cyclodextrin-in-deformable liposome». La bétaméthasone a été utilisée comme molécule modèle. Ces nouveaux systèmes ont été mis au point et caractérisés avec succès. Les premières études de diffusion réalisées in vitro, à travers des membranes synthétiques et au moyen des cellules de diffusion de Franz, étaient prometteuses. Afin de se rapprocher des conditions in vivo, des études de pénétration des liposomes ont alors été mises au point, ex-vivo, au moyen de cellules de diffusion et à travers des peaux doreilles de cochons. La méthode du « tape stripping » a permis de déterminer la quantité de bétaméthasone dans le stratum corneum. La quantité de substance active dans lépiderme, le derme et le mileu récepteur des cellules de Franz a également été déterminée. Ces méthodes ont été validées avec succés. Malheureusement, les études sur peaux doreilles de cochons nont pas permis de confirmer nos premières conclusions. Les recherches ont alors été orientées vers des études permettant de mieux comprendre les mécanismes de pénétration cutanée des liposomes. Dans la seconde partie de la thèse, linfluence de différents paramètres sur la pénétration cutanée a été étudiée. La comparaison de la pénétration cutanée de deux systèmes liposomiaux différents a mis en évidence limportance de la formulation des liposomes sur leur efficacité. Dans le premier, la bétaméthasone est encapsulée comme précédemment à laide de cyclodextrines dans la cavité aqueuse des liposomes déformables. Dans le second système, la bétaméthasone est encapsulée seule au niveau de la bicouche lipidique des liposomes. Ce second système a montré une plus grande perméabilité de la molécule modèle encapsulée. Malgré cette plus faible rétention, le deuxième système a permis daugmenter la pénétration de la molécule modèle. La plus grande perméabilité et la meilleure pénétration du deuxième système permettent de conclure que la bétaméthasone pénétrerait sous une forme non encapsulée dans les liposomes. De plus, aucune différence na été observée entre la pénétration cutanée des liposomes encapsulant la bétaméthasone dans leur bicouche et une dispersion non liposomale. Plusieurs tensio-actifs ont également été incorporés au niveau de la bicouche des liposomes afin dobtenir des liposomes déformables. Malheureusement, la faible augmentation de pénétration observée par rapport aux liposomes classiques non déformables nest pas significative. Lajout de lipides chargés au niveau de la bicouche lipidique de liposomes encapsulant soit la bétaméthasone soit le dipropionate de bétaméthasone a été investigué. Laddition de lipides chargés négativement a permis daugmenter la pénétration de la molécule encapsulée. Lutilisation de liposomes chargés négativement a permis daugmenter la quantité de bétaméthasone au niveau de lépiderme dun facteur 9,3 par rapport à une solution éthanolique de bétaméthasone. Cette augmentation na pas été observée avec la dispersion non liposomale correspondante, indiquant que la formulation sous forme de vésicules est très importante. En ce qui concerne le dipropionate de bétaméthasone, lencapsulation dans les liposomes chargés négativement a augmenté la quantité dester dans lépiderme dun facteur 5,5 par rapport à la spécialité Diprosone® lotion et seulement dun facteur 1,6 par rapport à la solution éthanolique. Lencapsulation dans les liposomes chargés négativement semble donc moins avantageuse dans le cas dune molécule plus lipophile, comme le dipropionate de bétaméthasone et qui possède déjà une bonne pénétration cutanée intrinsèque par rapport à une molécule plus hydrophile comme la bétamethasone. La pénétration de liposomes rendus fluorescents a été visualisée grâce à la microscopie confocale. Un marqueur lipophile, la rhodamine B, encapsulé dans la bicouche comme la bétaméthasone, pénètre bien dans la peau de la même façon que la phosphatidylcholine fluorescente. Par contre, un marqueur hydrophile, la calcéine, encapsulé dans la cavité des liposomes comme les complexes bétaméthasone-cyclodextrines, ne pénètre pas dans lépiderme. Ces observations confirment les résultats de dosage ex vivo au moyen des cellules de Franz. De plus, la pénétration dans la peau de la rhodamine B semble être plus importante lorsquelle est encapsulée dans les liposomes chargés négativement par rapport aux liposomes non chargés. Enfin, lefficacité des liposomes négatifs a été évaluée in vivo sur des volontaires grâce à lévaluation du pouvoir de blanchiement des corticostéroïdes. Le gel de carbomère contenant les liposomes chargés négativement semble augmenter la réponse de la bétaméthasone par rapport au gel éthanolique dhydroxypropylcellulose. Cependant, les résultats ne sont pas significatifs. Une explication pourrait être le faible nombre de volontaires. Par contre, dans le cas des liposomes contenant le dipropionate de bétaméthasone, il a été plus difficile de dégager une tendance. Ces résultats semblent confirmer que lutilisation des liposomes chargés négativement est plus intéressante dans le cas dune molécule moins lipophile comme la bétamethasone par rapport à une molécule plus lipophile comme le dipropionate de bétaméthasone. Ces résultats nécessitent cependant dêtre confirmés sur un plus grand nombre de volontaires.

Cannabidiol, a non-psychoactive constituent of cannabis, has garnered much attention after United States Food and Drug Administration approved Epidiolex® for oral use. Although therapeutic effect of cannabidiol after systemic absorption has been investigated extensively, its therapeutic potential in treating skin disorders after local delivery still needs further exploration. Our study has investigated the effect of cannabidiol concentration, chemical enhancers, and essential oils on percutaneous absorption of cannabidiol. In vitro permeation tests were conducted on human skin. The 24 h study results suggest no significant difference in amount of drug absorbed into skin, between 5% (242.41 ± 12.17 µg/cm) and 10% (232.79 ± 20.82 cm) cannabidiol solutions. However, 1% delivered (23.02 ± 4.74 µg/cm) significantly lower amount of drug into skin than 5% and 10%. Transcutol and isopropyl myristate did not enhance delivery of cannabidiol. However, oleic acid was found to be useful as chemical enhancer. Oleic acid (43.07 ± 10.11 µg/cm) had significantly higher cannabidiol delivery into skin than the group without oleic acid (10.98 ± 3.40 µg/cm) after a 4 h in vitro permeation study. Essential oils at concentrations tested had lower total cannabidiol delivery when compared to control. This study's findings will help guide future research on the pharmacological effect of percutaneously delivered cannabidiol on inflammatory skin disorders.

Background: Platinum group metal (PGM) mining and refining is a large constituent of the mining sector of South Africa and contributes significantly to the gross domestic product. The PGMs include the rare metals platinum (Pt), palladium (Pd), rhodium (Rh), ruthenium (Ru), iridium (Ir) and osmium (Os). During the refining process workers are potentially exposed to various chemical forms of the PGMs via the respiratory and dermal exposure routes. Historically, emphasis has been on respiratory exposure while the extent of skin exposure is still unknown. Among the different forms of PGMs, the salts are potential sensitisers, with platinum being a known respiratory sensitiser. Workers occupationally exposed to platinum and rhodium have reported respiratory as well as skin symptoms. However, it is unknown if these metals in the salt form are permeable through human skin, and whether dermal exposure could contribute to sensitisation. Evidence regarding differences between African and Caucasian skin anatomy and structure, as well as permeation through skin is contradictory, and no information is available on metal permeation through African skin. The in vitro diffusion method has been utilised successfully in occupational toxicology to demonstrate that metals such as chromium, cobalt and nickel, to name a few, permeate through human skin. The permeability of platinum and rhodium has not been investigated previously. Aims and objectives: The research aim was to obtain insight into the permeability of platinum and rhodium through intact human skin and to provide information needed to determine the potential health risk following dermal exposure to these metals. The specific objectives included: (i) to critically review the in vitro diffusion method that is used to determine the permeability of metals through human skin, (ii) to investigate the permeation of potassium tetrachloroplatinate (K2PtCl4) and rhodium chloride (RhCl3) as representative PGM salts through intact human skin over a 24-hour period, (iii) to evaluate the difference in permeability of platinum and rhodium through intact human skin, (iv) to evaluate the difference in permeability of platinum through intact African and Caucasian human skin. Methods: Abdominal skin obtained after cosmetic procedures was obtained from five female Caucasian and three female African donors between the ages of 28 and 52 with ethical approval from the North-West University. Full thickness skin tissue was mounted in a vertical Franz diffusion cell. Skin integrity was tested by measuring the electrical resistance across the skin before and after conclusion of the experiments, using a Tinsley LCR Data bridge Model 6401. The donor solution of 32.46 mg K2PtCl4 in 50 ml of synthetic sweat (pH 6.5), and 43.15 mg RhCl3 in 50 ml of synthetic sweat (pH 6.5) was prepared. The donor solution was applied to the stratum corneum side of the skin and physiological receptor solution (pH 7.35) was added to the receptor compartment. The concentration of the metals in the receptor solution was determined by high resolution inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry after extraction at various intervals during the 24 hours of the study. After completion of the study, the skin was rinsed four times to remove any platinum or rhodium remaining on the skin surface. The skin was digested using hydrogen peroxide, nitric acid and hydrochloric acid during different steps to determine the mass of the metals remaining in the skin by inductively coupled plasma-optical emission spectrometry. Results: The comparison of published in vitro skin permeation studies involving metals is impeded by the variations in the experimental design and dissimilarity in the reporting of results. Differences in experimental design included, most noticeably, the use of various donor and receptor solutions, different temperatures wherein the receptor compartment was placed, differences in skin thickness and variations in exposed skin surface areas. The metals considered in the review, namely chromium, cobalt, gold, lead, mercury, nickel, platinum, rhodium and silver, permeate through intact human skin under physiological conditions. Large variations in the permeability results were observed, with the notable differences in methodology as the probable reason. Results obtained from the in vitro experiments indicate that platinum and rhodium permeated through intact Caucasian skin with flux values of 0.12 and 0.05 ng/cm2/h, respectively. The cumulative mass of platinum (2.57 ng/cm2) that permeated after 24 hours of exposure was statistically significantly (p = 0.016) higher than rhodium permeation (1.11 ng/cm2). The mass of platinum (1 459.47 ng/cm2) retained in the skin after 24 hours of exposure was statistically significantly (p < 0.001) higher than rhodium retention (757.04 ng/cm2). The comparison of permeability between two different racial groups indicates that platinum permeated through the skin of both racial groups with the flux through African skin found as 1.93 ng/cm2/h and 0.27 ng/cm2/h through Caucasian skin. The cumulative mass of platinum permeated after 24 hours of exposure was statistically significantly (p = 0.044) higher through African skin (37.52 ng/cm2) than Caucasian skin (5.05 ng/cm2). The retention of platinum in African skin (3 064.13 ng/cm2) was more than twice the mass retained in Caucasian skin (1 486.32 ng/cm2). Conclusions: The in vitro diffusion method is an applicable method to determine skin permeability of metals. However, the experimental design and format of data reporting should be standardised to enable comparison of results from different studies. Platinum and rhodium permeated through intact human skin, with platinum permeation significantly higher. African skin was significantly more permeable by platinum than Caucasian skin. Both platinum and rhodium were retained inside the skin after 24 hours of exposure, possibly forming a reservoir which could contribute to continued permeation through the skin even after removal thereof from the skin. Platinum and rhodium permeated through full thickness skin and thereby could possibly contribute to local skin symptoms such as dermatitis and urticaria found in occupationally exposed workers. By permeating through the upper layers of the skin, these metals could potentially reach the viable epidermis and contribute to sensitisation. / PhD (Occupational Hygiene), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2015

Background: Platinum group metal (PGM) mining and refining is a large constituent of the mining sector of South Africa and contributes significantly to the gross domestic product. The PGMs include the rare metals platinum (Pt), palladium (Pd), rhodium (Rh), ruthenium (Ru), iridium (Ir) and osmium (Os). During the refining process workers are potentially exposed to various chemical forms of the PGMs via the respiratory and dermal exposure routes. Historically, emphasis has been on respiratory exposure while the extent of skin exposure is still unknown. Among the different forms of PGMs, the salts are potential sensitisers, with platinum being a known respiratory sensitiser. Workers occupationally exposed to platinum and rhodium have reported respiratory as well as skin symptoms. However, it is unknown if these metals in the salt form are permeable through human skin, and whether dermal exposure could contribute to sensitisation. Evidence regarding differences between African and Caucasian skin anatomy and structure, as well as permeation through skin is contradictory, and no information is available on metal permeation through African skin. The in vitro diffusion method has been utilised successfully in occupational toxicology to demonstrate that metals such as chromium, cobalt and nickel, to name a few, permeate through human skin. The permeability of platinum and rhodium has not been investigated previously. Aims and objectives: The research aim was to obtain insight into the permeability of platinum and rhodium through intact human skin and to provide information needed to determine the potential health risk following dermal exposure to these metals. The specific objectives included: (i) to critically review the in vitro diffusion method that is used to determine the permeability of metals through human skin, (ii) to investigate the permeation of potassium tetrachloroplatinate (K2PtCl4) and rhodium chloride (RhCl3) as representative PGM salts through intact human skin over a 24-hour period, (iii) to evaluate the difference in permeability of platinum and rhodium through intact human skin, (iv) to evaluate the difference in permeability of platinum through intact African and Caucasian human skin. Methods: Abdominal skin obtained after cosmetic procedures was obtained from five female Caucasian and three female African donors between the ages of 28 and 52 with ethical approval from the North-West University. Full thickness skin tissue was mounted in a vertical Franz diffusion cell. Skin integrity was tested by measuring the electrical resistance across the skin before and after conclusion of the experiments, using a Tinsley LCR Data bridge Model 6401. The donor solution of 32.46 mg K2PtCl4 in 50 ml of synthetic sweat (pH 6.5), and 43.15 mg RhCl3 in 50 ml of synthetic sweat (pH 6.5) was prepared. The donor solution was applied to the stratum corneum side of the skin and physiological receptor solution (pH 7.35) was added to the receptor compartment. The concentration of the metals in the receptor solution was determined by high resolution inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry after extraction at various intervals during the 24 hours of the study. After completion of the study, the skin was rinsed four times to remove any platinum or rhodium remaining on the skin surface. The skin was digested using hydrogen peroxide, nitric acid and hydrochloric acid during different steps to determine the mass of the metals remaining in the skin by inductively coupled plasma-optical emission spectrometry. Results: The comparison of published in vitro skin permeation studies involving metals is impeded by the variations in the experimental design and dissimilarity in the reporting of results. Differences in experimental design included, most noticeably, the use of various donor and receptor solutions, different temperatures wherein the receptor compartment was placed, differences in skin thickness and variations in exposed skin surface areas. The metals considered in the review, namely chromium, cobalt, gold, lead, mercury, nickel, platinum, rhodium and silver, permeate through intact human skin under physiological conditions. Large variations in the permeability results were observed, with the notable differences in methodology as the probable reason. Results obtained from the in vitro experiments indicate that platinum and rhodium permeated through intact Caucasian skin with flux values of 0.12 and 0.05 ng/cm2/h, respectively. The cumulative mass of platinum (2.57 ng/cm2) that permeated after 24 hours of exposure was statistically significantly (p = 0.016) higher than rhodium permeation (1.11 ng/cm2). The mass of platinum (1 459.47 ng/cm2) retained in the skin after 24 hours of exposure was statistically significantly (p < 0.001) higher than rhodium retention (757.04 ng/cm2). The comparison of permeability between two different racial groups indicates that platinum permeated through the skin of both racial groups with the flux through African skin found as 1.93 ng/cm2/h and 0.27 ng/cm2/h through Caucasian skin. The cumulative mass of platinum permeated after 24 hours of exposure was statistically significantly (p = 0.044) higher through African skin (37.52 ng/cm2) than Caucasian skin (5.05 ng/cm2). The retention of platinum in African skin (3 064.13 ng/cm2) was more than twice the mass retained in Caucasian skin (1 486.32 ng/cm2). Conclusions: The in vitro diffusion method is an applicable method to determine skin permeability of metals. However, the experimental design and format of data reporting should be standardised to enable comparison of results from different studies. Platinum and rhodium permeated through intact human skin, with platinum permeation significantly higher. African skin was significantly more permeable by platinum than Caucasian skin. Both platinum and rhodium were retained inside the skin after 24 hours of exposure, possibly forming a reservoir which could contribute to continued permeation through the skin even after removal thereof from the skin. Platinum and rhodium permeated through full thickness skin and thereby could possibly contribute to local skin symptoms such as dermatitis and urticaria found in occupationally exposed workers. By permeating through the upper layers of the skin, these metals could potentially reach the viable epidermis and contribute to sensitisation. / PhD (Occupational Hygiene), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2015