A device has been built to study fretting corrosion phenomena at a bearing/cartridge interface. The research is a continuation of a larger study funded by the Naval Research Laboratory. Its main objective is to determine the important parameters influencing fretting and fretting corrosion in rolling element bearings. The new device is capable of varying load from zero to 200 N (45 lbf), amplitude of vibration from zero to 500 µm (0.0197 in.), and frequency from 2.5 to 100 Hz for axial relative motion. Five sets of bearings and cartridges can be tested simultaneously at the same amplitude and frequency of vibration. Using this device with 52100 hardened steel bearings mounted in SAE 1020 steel cartridges, five analyses were carried out to investigate how load, frequency, amplitude, and presence of a grease influence the extent of fretting corrosion at the interface. / M.S.

El Método de los Elementos Finitos (MEF) ha sido y es uno de los métodos numéricos más utilizados para la estimación de parámetros caracterizantes en Mecánica de la Fractura. En el caso de la Mecánica de la Fractura Elástico-Lineal (MFEL), existe una gran cantidad de métodos que permiten estimar el factor de intensidad de tensiones K (o equivalentemente, la tasa de liberación de energía G) a partir de un análisis de elementos finitos (EF). Este tipo de análisis ha permitido estudiar la propagación de grieta en fase II y la estimación de vida. En los últimos años la aplicación del método de elementos finitos (X-FEM) ha demostrado ser una herramienta muy eficaz para el modelado numérico de grietas en MFEL, donde proporciona beneficios significativos en la elaboración de modelos numéricos de propagación de grietas. Las principales ventajas son que la malla de elementos finitos no necesita ajustarse a los límites de la grieta para modelar la discontinuidad geométrica, y, además, la regeneración de la malla no es necesaria en las simulaciones de crecimiento de la grieta. Por lo tanto, una única malla, que a menudo se genera con facilidad, puede ser utilizada para cualquier longitud de grieta y orientación. Las aportaciones realizadas en esta Tesis están relacionadas con tres aspectos: el modelado del contacto con fricción de caras de grieta con X-FEM, el modelado de la orientación de propagación en fretting fatiga en casos de contacto completo y la estimación de vida, también en contacto completo. En estos dos últimos casos se ha realizado una correlación con los resultados obtenidos mediante ensayos experimentales. En ciertos problemas de fatiga se pueden presentar situaciones de contacto entre caras de grieta a lo largo del ciclo, y por tanto, las grietas experimentan procesos de cierre con contacto entre sus caras. En esta Tesis se utiliza una formulación integral para establecer el contacto entre los segmentos de caras de grieta dentro de cada elemento. / Sabsabi ., M. (2010). Modelado de grieta y estimación de vida en Fretting Fatiga mediante el Método de los Elementos Finitos Extendido X-FEM [Tesis doctoral]. Universitat Politècnica de València. https://doi.org/10.4995/Thesis/10251/7521

A fundamental study was conducted to analyze the friction and degradation mechanisms of thin rubber coatings used as fretting corrosion inhibitors. Two elastomers, polyurethane and styreneethylene-butylene (SEBS), were investigated. The mechanisms of wear were studied by analyzing wear scars with optical microscopy. Friction mechanisms were investigated using friction forcedisplacement hysteresis loops and friction force variation with test frequency, fretting amplitude and fIlm thickness. Lastly, coating life variation with these three parameters was studied and explained through a simplified fatigue mechanics approach. / Master of Science

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effect of film thickness on a polystyrene coating used to prevent fretting corrosion in a steel-on-steel system. The polystyrene coating was applied to a 1045 steel disk and fretted against a 52100 steel ball. Two sets of experiments were employed. The first set evaluated film life by using seven different film thicknesses ranging from 7.9 to 52 um. The results from this set of experiments indicated that a drastic increase in film life occurred for coatings thicker than 40 pm. The other set of experiments was used to study how fretting damage progressed with time and how it was affected by film thickness. For this purpose two film thicknesses, 38 and 52 μm, were used. The results from these experiments led to the speculation that stress and temperature conditions were different in the 38 and 52 μm films. These differences resulted in a milder fretting regime, and therefore longer life, in the thicker film. Optical and scanning electron microscopy and computer graphics were used to study in detail the fretting interface. The fretting mechanisms were explained in terms of mechanical, chemical, tribochemical, and tribophysical effects. / Master of Science

A statistical analysis was conducted to investigate the effect of applied load and relative humidity of the atmosphere on the durability and coefficient of friction of five polymer coatings used to protect against fretting corrosion. Chlorine and non-chlorine containing polymers were used in this research to see if the large humidity effect seen in a previous study with polyvinyl chloride is strictly a chlorine related phenomenon. The five polymers used were polyvinyl chloride, polyvinylidene chloride, polystyrene, and two siloxane modified polyimides. Disks made of 1045 steel were coated with thin polymeric films and fretted against a 52100 steel ball. Three levels of load were used: 11.12, 22.25, and 44.5 N, and the two levels of relative humidity were less than 10% and between 45 and 55%. Amplitude of oscillation was 330 μm peak to peak, frequency of oscillation was 40 Hz, and the coating thickness was 25 μm. Statistically significant variables and interactions are identified, and reasons for their significance are discussed. Increasing the humidity had no consistent effect on the ending coefficient of friction between the polymer film and the oscillating ball, increasing the load decreased the coefficient of friction, and either increasing the humidity or load decreased the life of the coating during fretting. The extent of this reduction in life depends on the polymer. The relative humidity of the environment affected the coating life of only one of the chlorine-containing polymers. Humidity was also shown to affect the coating life of two polymers that do not contain chlorine. / Master of Science

Direct measurements of surface temperatures produced during fretting contact are an unknown area in the discipline of tribology; in addition, the possible effects of such temperatures on the behavior of protective anti-fretting coatings (e.g., polymeric) have never been investigated. An oscillating contact device was designed and built to study fretting contact behavior in tribological processes. The contact geometry consisted of a stationary spherical test specimen loaded against a vibrating sapphire disk driven by an electromagnetic shaker. Surface temperatures generated by frictional heating were measured during fretting contact using an infrared microscope. A photo/video technique was developed to view the fretting contact interface during an experiment and to measure the size and distribution of real area(s) of contact. The effects of size and distribution of the areas on the experimental surface temperatures for polymer-coated steel spheres-on- sapphire were investigated. Archard's theoretical model was also modified to account for multiple contact areas, and the calculated surface temperatures were compared to the experimental results. Polymeric coatings - including polystyrene (PS), polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA), polysulfone (PSO), polyvinylchloride (PVC), and polyvinylidenechloride (PVDC) were studied at a given load (20 N), frequency (150 Hz), amplitude (100 JLm), and film thickness (55 p.m). The surface temperatures generated were generally low and below the glass transition temperatures of the rigid polymers studied. The magnitude of the surface temperatures was found to be particularly dependent on the size and distribution of real area(s) of contact. The most extensive studies were performed using polystyrene coatings. Effects of load, frequency, amplitude, and film thickness on surface temperature rise and the size and distributions of real area of contact were examined. In addition, uncoated steel specimens were studied under various loads and fretting amplitudes. The observed formation of iron oxide at low surface temperature (60°C) tribologica1 experiments was explained in terms of exoelectron emission. There were considerable differences observed in the behavior of polymeric coatings under various fretting conditions. The fretting behavior of the coatings was explained in terms of mechanical and thermo-elastic effects. Thermo-elastic predictions of size distributions of real contact areas (patches) showed good agreement with the observed photo/video studies. A mechanism was proposed for tribological behavior and fretting protection of polystyrene coatings. / Ph. D.

The relative motion between a ball bearing outer race and the bearing's cartridge was investigated. The investigation was part of a larger program, the objective of which is to examine the important parameters influencing fretting corrosion in rolling element bearings. The bearing examined was a 320 size, deep grooved, ABEC 7 ball bearing used in a Navy ship service motor-generator unit. Three axes of acceleration signatures were simultaneously recorded from the outer race and cartridge. These acceleration signatures were Fourier transformed, averaged, and integrated twice to obtain displacement frequency spectrums. Corresponding displacements were vectorially subtracted to produce the relative motion between the outer race and the cartridge. Two load cases (0% and 100% load) and two frequency ranges (15 to 500 Hz and 30 Hz to 10 kHz) are examined. The resulting relative motion spectrums were complex with the bearing's forcing frequencies dominating the spectrums below 250 Hz and rotor imbalance causing the highest spectral component of relative displacement (170 µm). / M.S.

Lors du fonctionnement d'un turboréacteur, la rotation de l'axe du moteur induit une force centrifuge qui plaque les aubes contre les alvéoles du disque, le long de surfaces appelées « portées ». Au cours de la vie du moteur, des micro-glissements (« fretting ») sont générés au niveau des portées. Ce travail de thèse s'intéresse aux endommagements de type oligocyclique des portées aube/ disque du compresseur Haute Pression (HP) d'un turboréacteur civil. Afin de réduire le frottement et de protéger les pièces, les portées des aubes sont revêtues d'un dépôt épais de CuNiln sur lequel est appliqué un lubrifiant solide. Le système est soumis à des pressions fortes (600MPa) et à des températures élevées (500°C). Des expertises sur pièces ont permis d'identifier des usures importantes et des phénomènes de transfert. Pour simuler expérimentalement le contact, un moyen d'essai de fretting usure en température a été développé dans le cadre de cette thèse. A partir d'une géométrie de contact échelle 1 simplifiée, choisie pour représenter les champs de chargement moteur, le domaine des sollicitations a été balayé et les comportements tribologiques identifiés et caractérisés. L'étude tribologique a permis de mettre en évidence l'influence forte de la force normale sur les mécanismes d'endommagements, dont les scénarios de mise en place ont pu être explicités pour les deux domaines majeurs de sollicitations. Dans un deuxième temps, les endommagements ont été étudiés d'un point de vue physicochimique et le rôle tribochimique joué par les éléments environnementaux (0, N ... ) a été mis en évidence. Pour finir, la comparaison directe des mécanismes identifiés sur banc expérimental et sur le système industriel a permis d'aborder, d'un point de vue critique, l'importance des paramètres choisis pour les équivalences expérience / système industriel ; et de la dynamique de chargement pour garantir la représentativité d'un essai à l'échelle laboratoire. / In the blade/ disk contact of aero-engines, movements induced by the engine regime changes may lead to critical wear. In order to limit friction and protect components, motorists usually use a thick and soft CuNiin layer (150 !-lm) covered with a lubricant. This system is subjected to high contact pressure (upto 600 MPa) and high temperatures (up to 500 °C). In service observations of engine parts revealed significant wear and transfer phenomena. An experimental layout was designed to perform fretting wear tests in temperature on a punch/plane contact, representative of engine solicitation. Based on the tribological study performed, specified gradation mechanisms were identified and the evidence of a pressure threshold was demonstrated. Physicochemical analyses performed confirmed the role played by environment (0, N ... ) in fretting wear mechanisms and suggest that the tribochemical effects should be considered in the fretting wear models. Direct comparisons between degradation mechanisms identified on the experimental system, and on industrial parts, allow a critical review of parameters chosen to simulate the contact. Finally, the impact of loading dynamics was investigated in order to improve tests representativity at la bora tory scale.

La dégradation par fretting-corrosion des prothèses de hanche cimentées est l’une des principales causes de réintervention chirurgicale. L’étude du fretting-corrosion est effectuée entre un acier inoxydable 316L, matériau utilisé pour les tiges fémorales, et un polymère PMMA, matériau modèle du ciment chirurgical, dans différentes solutions, plus ou moins proches du liquide physiologique.L’étude a d'abord été réalisée à potentiel libre (OCP) pour être proche des conditions in vivo. L’influence des chlorures et le rôle de l’albumine, principale protéine du liquide physiologique, sur la dégradation du 316L et de sa couche passive sont ainsi évalués.Pour pouvoir obtenir des informations sur le courant de corrosion, des essais sont effectués à potentiel imposé. Le potentiel choisi est proche de la valeur de potentiel pendant fretting : E = -400 mV(ECS). Ce potentiel permet d’observer la transition entre courant cathodique et courant anodique en fonction de la force ionique. Lors d’un essai de fretting-corrosion, l’albumine joue le rôle d’inhibiteur de corrosion.La dégradation du 316L par fretting-corrosion est une combinaison entre l’usure corrosive, due au milieu physiologique contenant des chlorures, et l’usure mécanique. Il existe un terme de synergie entre usures corrosive et mécanique. L’influence de la force ionique et de l’albumine sur ce terme de synergie est aussi quantifiée.La forme de la trace d’usure en “W”, caractéristique du fretting-corrosion, est due à un gradient de pH et à un mécanisme de corrosion proche de la corrosion caverneuse. Une étude à pH global imposé a permis d’estimer les valeurs probables de pH dans et à une courte distance de la zone d’usure. / In case of total hip joint cemented prosthesis, one of the most important causes of reintervention is the degradation induced by fretting-corrosion. The study of fretting-corrosion mechanism is conducted between a 316L stainless steel, the same material as the femoral stem, and a polymer PMMA, a model material for bone cement, in several solutions, more or less close to physiological liquid.First, the study was investigated at Open Circuit Potential (OCP), to be close to the in vivo conditions. The influence of chlorides and the role of albumin, the principal protein in the physiological liquid, on the 316L and its passive layer degradation are evaluated.To obtain some information on corrosion current, experiments are investigated at applied potential. The chosen potential is close to the value of the potential during fretting: E = -400 mV(SCE). Besides, this potential is a threshold potential for anodic and cathodic transition of current as a function of ionic strength. One of the key points is the role of albumin as a corrosion inhibitor in the degradation by fretting-corrosion.The 316L degradation by fretting-corrosion is a combination between corrosive wear, due to the physiological liquid which contains chlorides, and mechanical wear. There is a synergy term between corrosive and mechanical wears. The influence of ionic strength and albumin concentration on this synergy term is also quantified.The shape of the worn area in “W”, typical of fretting-corrosion, is due to a pH gradient and a corrosion mechanism close to crevice corrosion. A study where the global pH of the solution is fixed allows estimating values of pH in and at a short distance from the worn area.

Ce mémoire présente une analyse de la réponse tribologique d’un contact cylindre/plan soumis à des sollicitations de fretting sous chargement complexe, à savoir une sollicitation normale de force sinusoïdale et une sollicitation tangentielle de déplacement sinusoïdal, toutes deux possiblement sujettes à des fluctuations d'amplitude, de fréquence et de déphasage entre sollicitations. On s'intéresse plus particulièrement à l’usure des guides de grappe en 304L par les crayons en 316L nitrurés, induite par les vibrations de l’écoulement du fluide primaire dans les réacteurs nucléaires.L’étude expérimentale menée dans un environnement non représentatif mais très simple, à savoir un milieu sec et à l'ambiante, montre une usure non négligeable des deux contre-corps ce qui révèle les propriétés fragiles du tube nitruré dans cet environnement. Une très forte dépendance des faciès d’usure avec l’amplitude de glissement est notée. Seule la cinétique d’usure du tube nitruré est influencée par l'évolution de la charge normale. Aussi, une description analytique de l’énergie de frottement est développée, en prenant compte de l’ensemble des paramètres de chargement.En solution aqueuse lithium-bore, choix de milieu un peu plus représentatif mais en restant néanmoins à l'ambiante, seul le plan en acier 304L s’use, le cylindre en acier 316L nitruré n’étant pas sujet à de l'usure détectable. Un couplage avec des phénomènes corrosifs est proposé. En fretting simple, le confinement du contact augmente localement la valeur du pH et l’analyse de l’influence de la fréquence de fretting suggère que seule la couche passive est usée entre chaque glissement. Sous chargement complexe, la fluctuation de la charge normale permet une meilleure accessibilité de la solution dans l’interface frottée, augmentant localement les effets tribocorrosifs. Une loi d’usure multiplicative prenant en compte les différents effets de fluctuation des sollicitations est introduite et sa stabilité est vérifiée.Un modèle de calculs par éléments finis permet de simuler les profils d’usure en fretting simple et aussi en présence de force normale variable. En fretting simple, les résultats de simulation d'essais où seul le plan 304L s'use sont satisfaisants. En revanche, la non-superposition des profils expérimentaux et numériques lorsque la force normale fluctue confirme la présence de phénomènes physiques dans l'interface non encore représentés dans l'outil numérique. / This PhD thesis presents an analysis of the fretting wear of a cylinder/plane contact subject to complex loading conditions, namely a normal sinusoidal force solicitation and a tangential sinusoidal displacement, both possibly subject to fluctuations in amplitude, frequency and phase shift between signals. The purpose of this work is to study the wear of 304L cluster guides by nitrided 316L rods due to flow-induced vibrations of primary fluid in nuclear reactors.Firstly, the experimental study conducted in a dry and ambient temperature - a non-representative but very simple environment - shows significant wear of both counter-bodies, which reveals the fragile properties of the nitrided tube in this environment. A very strong dependence of the fretting scar morphology with the sliding amplitude is noted. Only the wear kinetics of the nitrided tube is influenced by the evolution of the normal load. Also, an analytical description of friction energy is developed, taking into account all loading parameters.In a second hand, in aqueous lithium-boron solution, a slightly more representative choice of medium but still remaining in the ambient, only the 304L steel plane wears out, the 316L nitrided steel cylinder is not subject to detectable wear. A coupling with corrosive phenomena is proposed. In simple fretting, contact confinement locally increases the pH value. Moreover, the analysis of the influence of the fretting frequency suggests that only the passive layer is worn between each slip. Under complex loading, the fluctuation of the normal load allows a better accessibility of the solution in the rubbed interface, increasing locally the tribocorrosive effects. A multiplicative wear law taking into account the various effects of normal force fluctuation is introduced and its stability is checked.Finally a finite element calculation model is used to simulate wear profiles in simple fretting and also in the presence of variable normal force. Only cases where the plan wears out (lithium-boron environment) have been simulated. In simple fretting, test simulation results are satisfactory. On the other hand, the non-superposition of the experimental and numerical profiles when the normal force fluctuates, confirms the presence of physical phenomena in the interface which are not yet represented in the numerical tool.