Este trabalho apresenta um modelo inovador de coletor solar plano, com placa absorvedora fabricada por Estampagem Incremental e Soldagem FSW (Friction Stir Welding). Esta placa absorvedora é constituída de duas chapas de alumínio AA1200-H14 com espessura de 1 mm, estampadas e soldadas em simetria, a fim de que na união das chapas sejam deixados canais para passagem de água. Neste estudo foi realizada a caracterização do material por Ensaio de Tração e Ensaio Nakajima. Para determinação dos parâmetros de Estampagem Incremental foram realizados 16 experimentos com ferramenta de diâmetro df = 9,5 mm, variando a rotação de N = 50 rpm a 800 rpm e o incremento vertical de Δz = 2 mm a 0,2 mm, mantendo o avanço em = 250 mm/min. E também foram realizados 3 experimentos com ferramenta df = 22 mm, variando o incremento vertical de Δz = 2 mm a 0,5 mm, mantendo a rotação em N = 50 rpm e o avanço em = 250 mm/min. Para determinação dos parâmetros de Soldagem FSW foram realizados 4 experimentos com ferramenta de ombro de diâmetro 8 mm e pino roscado M3x0,5, mantendo a rotação em N = 1500 rpm e variando o avanço entre = 100 mm/min a 400 mm/min. Em seguida foi fabricado um protótipo de placa absorvedora de coletor solar com área de 0,12 m². Nos experimentos realizados foi constatado que é possível obter maiores deformações na Estampagem Incremental do que na Estampagem Convencional e que as deformações são mais elevadas quando se utiliza menores diâmetros, maiores rotações e menores incrementos verticais da ferramenta. Na Soldagem FSW não foi constatada influência na qualidade do cordão de solda em relação à variação do avanço da ferramenta. Neste estudo também se verificou que é possível fabricar protótipos de placas absorvedoras de coletores solares pelos processos de Estampagem Incremental e Soldagem FSW. No entanto, para coletores em tamanho comercial, novos estudos são necessários para melhorar a forma de fixação das chapas durante a Soldagem FSW. / This work presents an innovative model of flat plate solar collector, with absorber plate manufactured using Incremental Sheet Forming (ISF) and Friction Stir Welding (FSW). This absorber plate consists of two AA1200-H14 aluminum sheets with a thickness of 1 mm, stamped and welded in symmetry, in order to leave channels for the passage of water. In this study the characterization of the material by Nakajima Test and Traction Test was performed. In order to determine the parameters of ISF, 16 experiments were performed with a tool of diameter df = 9.5 mm, varying the rotation speed of N = 50 rpm at 800 rpm and the step down of Δz = 2 mm to 0.2 mm, maintaining the feed rate at = 250 mm/min. Also, 3 experiments with tool df = 22 mm were performed, varying the step down of Δz = 2 mm to 0.5 mm, maintaining the rotation speed at N = 50 rpm and the feed rate at = 250 mm/min. For determination of FSW parameters, 4 experiments with 8 mm diameter shoulder tool and M3x0.5 pin were performed, maintaining the rotation speed at N = 1500 rpm and varying the feed rate from = 100 mm/min to 400 mm/min. A prototype solar collector absorber plate with a 0.12 m² area was then manufactured. In the experiments carried out, it was found that it is possible to obtain greater deformations in the ISF than in the Conventional Stamping and that the deformations are higher when using smaller diameters, higher rotations and smaller step downs of the tool. In FSW, no influence was observed in the quality of the weld bead in relation to the variation of the tool feed rate. In this study it was also verified that it is possible to manufacture prototypes of solar collector absorber plates by the processes of ISF and FSW. However, for commercial size collectors, further studies are needed to improve the way the plates are fixed during FSW.

In order to develop a better understanding of the property, microstructure evolution and thermal history of FSW Inconel 718's, the strain, strain rate and thermal cycles need to be determined. In order to estimate the strain field of a deformed body, a displacement function needs to be determined. A 3D deformation model was developed to determine the displacement coefficients. A rectangular box created in this model deforms following a linear displacement function. Three orthogonal planes cut this deformed box, which leads to three deformed planes. The shape parameters (L, H, θ¹ and θ²) on the three orthogonal planes can be expressed as the functions of displacement coefficients. Although the displacement coefficients can not be expressed in the forms of the shape parameters symbolically, a numerical solution can be found using numerical optimization methods. The shape parameters were obtained by assuming the displacement coefficients (three cases). Then, the numerical optimization was carried out to determine the displacement coefficients. The solved displacement coefficients are the same as the assumed ones, which shows that this inverse problem can be solved, and this model is robust to determine the displacement function numerically. This model was used to estimate the strain and strain rate at the boundary of the nugget zone of Friction Stir Welding (FSW) Inconel 718. A numerical/experimental methodology was developed to estimate the thermal history in the stir zone of FSW Inconel 718.The thermocouple experiment was conducted to measure the thermal cycles in Heat Affected Zone (HAZ). Using the measured temperature in HAZ and a numerical model, the peak temperature (1039 ºC) and cooling rate (58.18 ºC/s) were determined. The microstructure in different regions was characterized and co-related with the thermal cycles. In order to understand the microstructure evolution in the stir zone, the strain rate (12.612 s-1) was estimated using the mathematical model as mentioned above. According to the estimated thermal history and strain rate, the assumption that the dynamic recrystallizaiton occurred during FSW was made. The grain size in the nugget zone affects the hardness. The relationship among the microstructure, mechanical properties, and thermal cycles was discussed.

O processo de soldagem por fricção e mistura (FSW) tem despertado grande interesse nos últimos anos e tornou-se uma alternativa para unir materiais de baixa soldabilidade, como as ligas de alumínio das séries 2XXX e 7XXX, as quais são empregadas na estrutura das aeronaves, por possuírem elevada relação resistência/peso. O processo FSW, todavia, causa mudanças microestruturais nos materiais soldados, particularmente na zona misturada (ZM) e nas zonas termicamente (ZTA) ou termomecanicamente (ZTMA) afetadas. Estas mudanças geralmente interferem no desempenho frente à corrosão das ligas soldadas. No presente estudo, a resistência à corrosão das ligas de alumínio 2024-T3 e 7475-T761, unidas pelo processo FSW foi investigada em solução 10 mM de NaCl. Ensaios de visualização em gel ágar-ágar e de imersão associados a técnicas microscópicas foram realizados para investigar o efeito do acoplamento galvânico na corrosão das diferentes regiões da junta soldada. Os resultados do ensaio de visualização em gel mostraram que, quando acopladas, a liga 2024 atua como cátodo e a 7475 como ânodo. Os ensaios de imersão revelaram acoplamento galvânico entre as ligas na zona misturada (ZM). A região mais afetada pela corrosão foi a ZTMA da liga 7475, com corrosão intergranular desde as primeiras horas de imersão. A influência do processo de soldagem na resistência à corrosão das duas ligas de alumínio foi investigada por ensaios eletroquímicos. Os ensaios eletroquímicos adotados foram medidas de potencial de circuito aberto (PCA) em função do tempo de exposição ao meio corrosivo, espectroscopia de impedância eletroquímica (EIE) e curvas de polarização potenciodinâmica. Os ensaios de polarização mostraram elevada atividade eletroquímica na zona de mistura indicada pelos altos valores de densidade de corrente em comparação com as demais zonas testadas. Os resultados de EIE globais mostraram que nas primeiras horas de exposição ao eletrólito o processo de corrosão foi predominantemente controlado pela liga 7475; todavia, com o tempo de exposição ao eletrólito, a corrosão passou a ser controlada pela liga 2024. / Friction stir welding (FSW) has roused great interest in recent years and it is now an alternative for joining materials of low weldability, such as the aluminum alloys of the 2XXX and 7XXX series, used in the aircrafts structure due to their high strength /weight ratio. However, FSW causes material microstructural changes, mainly in the stir zone (SZ), the heat affected zone (HAZ) or thermomechanically (TMAZ) affected zones of the materials welded. These generally interfere with the corrosive performance of the welded joint. In the present study, the corrosion resistance of the 2024-T3 and 7475-T761aluminum alloys, joined by FSW was investigated in 10 mM NaCl electrolyte. Agar-agar gel and immersion tests associated with microscopic techniques were performed to investigate the effect of galvanic coupling between the welded materials. Results from this test showed that, when galvanically coupled, the 2024 alloy acts as cathode and the 7475 as anode. Immersion tests revealed galvanic coupling between the alloys in the SZ. The zone most susceptible to corrosion was the TMAZ of the 7475. Intergranular corrosion was observed in this zone since the first hours of immersion. The influence of the welding process on the corrosion resistance of the alloys was also evaluated by electrochemical tests. The electrochemical tests adopted were open circuit potential measurements (OCP) as a function of time of exposure to the electrolyte, electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) and potentiodynamic polarization curves. The polarization tests showed high electrochemical activity in the stir zone indicated by the high current densities measured comparatively to the other tested zones. The global EIS results indicated that in the first few hours of exposure to the electrolyte the corrosion process was predominantly controlled by the 7475 alloy; however, with time of exposure to the electrolyte, the corrosion was controlled by alloy 2024.

O processo de soldagem por atrito linear com mistura (FSW) é uma técnica recente para a soldagem no estado sólido de materiais, em particular para o alumínio e suas ligas. O processo foi inventado na Inglaterra em 1991. Neste processo, as partes a serem soldadas são fixadas e uma ferramenta especial realiza a soldagem de forma contínua. A ferramenta possui uma velocidade de rotação e, durante a sua translação, o material é misturado no estado sólido e, conseqüentemente, soldando as duas partes. A junta soldada por FSW de alumínio AA 6063-T6, com espessura de 3 mm foi caracterizada. A soldagem foi realizada com uma rotação da ferramenta de 710 rpm e com uma velocidade de translação de 5,3 mm/s. A ferramenta empregada é do tipo three flats, com diâmetro do ombro de 14 mm, diâmetro do pino de 3 mm e com ângulo de 90° com relação à horizontal. Os corpos de prova foram soldados em três condições: um passe, dois passes e dois passes com inversão de rotação do pino. Após a soldagem foram realizados os seguintes tratamentos térmicos: solubilização, envelhecimento e recozimento. A junta soldada foi caracterizada por macrografias, micrografias, microdureza, ensaios de calorimetria diferencial e EBSD. Os resultados mostraram que existem ZTMAs diferentes conforme a condição dos de passes. O número de passes tem influência nas componentes da textura alterando de Cubo para Latão e para Goss + Cobre. Os tratamentos térmicos de envelhecimento e recozimento produziram as maiores e menores durezas do cordão, respectivamente. Foi observada a sinergia entre os fatores número de passes e região do cordão no tamanho de grão do cordão. O lado de retrocesso, após o tratamento térmico, apresentou os grãos mais finos. / Friction stir welding (FSW) is a recent process for aluminium welding in solid state. This process was invented in England in 1991. The welding process is done with a special rotating tool that travels along the joint while the parts are fixed. The tool has a speed and a rotation and during its translation the material mixtures in solid state and the joint occurs. The objective of this paper is to show the metallurgical and mechanical characteristics of a 3 mm thick Aluminum AA 6063 T6 plate welded joint. The tool rotation speed was 710 rpm and the translation speed was 5.3 mm/s. The type of the tool used was three flats, with a shoulder diameter of 14mm and pin diameter of 3mm and perpendicular to the plate. The samples were welded in three conditions: one pass, two passes and two passes with pin rotation inversion in the second pass. The welded samples were also submitted to solution heat treatment, solution heat treatment followed by aging and annealing heat treatments. The welded joint was studied with these main experimental techniques: optical and scanning electron microscopy, microhardness, differential scanning calorimetry and electron backscatter diffraction for texture analysis. The results showed different TAZs according to the welding conditions. The number of passes has influence over the texture components changing from Cube to Brass and to Goss + Copper. The aging and solution heat treatments showed the highest and the lowest hardness, respectively. Synergy between the welding conditions and weld region was observed for the grain size results. The retreating side produced the finest grains after heat treating.

Neste trabalho os efeitos da soldagem por fricção e mistura na resistência à corrosão da liga 2098-T351 foram avaliados e correlacionados com sua microestrutura. Neste sentido, técnicas eletroquímicas convencionais e locais (EIS, curvas de polarização, SVET, SECM e LEIS) em conjunto com técnicas de caracterização microestrutural (XPS, SEM, TEM, DSC, microdureza, perfilometria ótica) foram utilizadas. Devido a pouca informação encontrada na literatura sobre este material, uma caracterização prévia da liga na condição como recebida pelo fabricante foi realizada. Com isso, observou-se a existência da influência da preparação da amostra na resistência à corrosão da liga. Amostras na condição como recebida apresentaram maior resistência à corrosão do que as amostras polidas. Em seguida, a liga 2098-T351 foi caracterizada e sua resistência à corrosão comparada com a da liga convencional 2024-T3, amplamente usada na indústria aeroespacial. Os resultados mostraram diferentes mecanismos de propagação da corrosão para as duas ligas. Em termos de resistência à corrosão, a liga 2098-T351 apresentou potencial para substituir a liga 2024-T3 em termos de resistência a penetração do ataque localizado. Por fim, a reatividade das diferentes zonas de soldagem foi correlacionada com as respectivas características microestruturais. Os resultados mostraram que a região da junta soldada, que compreende a região da zona misturada e zona termomecânicamente afetada, foi mais resistente à corrosão do que a zona termicamente afetada e o metal base. A alta densidade da fase T1 (Al2CuLi) nestas ultimas regiões, comparadas à junta soldada foi considerada responsável por esse comportamento. / In this work, the effects of friction stir welding on the corrosion resistance of the 2098-T351 alloy were evaluated and correlated with its microstructure. In this sense, conventional and local eletrochemical techniques (EIS, polarization curves, SVET, SECM e LEIS) together with microstructural characterization techniques (XPS, SEM, TEM, DSC, microhardness, optical profilometry) were used. Due to the little information found in the literature on the 2098-T351 alloy a prior characterization of the alloy in the as received condition by the manufacturer was carried out. Thus, the influence of sample preparation on the corrosion resistance of the alloy was observed. Samples in the as-received condition showed higher corrosion resistance than the polished ones. Next, the the 2098-T351 alloy was characterized and its corrosion resistance compared to that of the conventional 2024-T3, widely used in the aerospace industry. The results showed different mechanisms of corrosion propagation for the two alloys. In terms of corrosion resistance, the 2098-T351 alloy presents potential to replace the conventional 2024-T3 alloy due to its resistance to corrosion attack penetration. Finally, the reactivity of the different FSW welding zones was correlated with their microstructural features. The results showed that the weld joint, which comprises the stir zone and the thermomechanically affected zone, was more resistant to corrosion than the heat affected zone and base metal. The high density of T1 phase (Al2CuLi) in these last zones, compared to the weld joint was considered responsible for this behavior.

A procura cada vez mais intensa por redução de peso e consequente diminuição do consumo de combustível dos veículos automotores e aeronaves, tem proporcionado um crescimento constante na utilização do alumínio e suas ligas nos diversos setores da indústria de manufatura. No entanto, a dificuldade de união em juntas de alumínio que atendam requisitos de alta resistência à fratura e à fadiga, tem intensificado as pesquisas por novas tecnologias em seu processo de soldagem. Neste contexto, o processo de soldagem denominado Friction Stir Welding (FSW), vem ganhando espaço nas pesquisas e também na indústria. Neste processo, uma ferramenta não consumível é projetada especialmente para ser introduzida nas juntas das chapas a serem soldadas, gerando calor e misturando mecanicamente o material da junta, consolidando a solda. Este trabalho teve como objetivo avaliar os efeitos dos parâmetros de soldagem FSW, na consolidação das propriedades mecânicas das soldas produzidas, na microestrutura, além de buscar a otimização do processo para a liga em estudo. Para tanto, a geometria da ferramenta foi projetada, fabricada e testada, de forma a definir os parâmetros ideais para obtenção de juntas soldadas sem defeitos. Uma máquina fresadora CNC foi utilizada para a execução dos testes. As soldas foram produzidas em chapas de alumínio da liga Al 5182-O com espessura de 3,25mm, com velocidade rotacional da ferramenta mantida constante em 500 rpm e velocidades de soldagem de 50, 100, 150, 200 e 250 mm/min. A ferramenta foi inclinada em um ângulo de 1º, todas as soldas foram realizadas com sentido horário de rotação, após a realização dos testes as juntas soldadas foram submetidas a uma série de ensaios destrutivos e não destrutivos caracterizando cada teste realizado. Juntas de topo com penetração completa e livre de defeitos foram produzidas com velocidades de soldagem de 100, 150, 200 e 250 mm/min, enquanto com a velocidade de soldagem de 50 mm/min resultou em defeito do tipo vazio na zona da mistura no lado do avanço, defeito este caracterizado através de inspeção por microtomografia, o que fez com que as soldas produzidas com esta velocidade de soldagem rompessem na junta soldada. Em todas as velocidades de soldagem a caracterização através de microscopia óptica na seção transversal das soldas revelou um refino microestrutural, obtido pelo fenômeno de recristalização dinâmica, que resultou em um aumento nos valores de dureza na zona da mistura. Os resultados obtidos demostram que soldas de boa qualidade podem ser produzidas com este processo. Além disso, foi estabelecida uma correlação entre a história térmica associada ao processo de FSW, a microestrutura produzida e o desempenho mecânico das juntas soldadas. / The increasingly intense demand for weight reduction and consequent reduction of the fuel consumption of motor vehicles and aircraft , has provided a steady growth in the use of aluminum and its alloys in various sectors of the manufacturing industry , but the difficulty in joining together aluminum that meet high fracture resistance and fatigue , has intensified the research for new technologies in the process of welding. In this context , the welding process called Friction Stir Welding ( FSW ) has been gaining ground in research and also in industry . In this process , non-consumable tool is specially designed to be inserted in the joints of the plates to be welded, generating heat and mechanically mixing the gasket material, consolidating the weld. This study aimed to evaluate the effects of welding parameters FSW , the consolidation of the mechanical properties of the welds produced, microstructure, and seek to optimize the process for the alloy under study. For this, the geometry of the tool is designed, manufactured and tested in order to define the optimal parameters for obtaining welded joints without defects. A milling machine CNC was used for the tests. The welds were produced in sheets of aluminum alloy Al 5182-O with a thickness of 3,25mm with rotational speed of the tool maintained constant at 500 rpm and welding speeds of 50, 100, 150, 200 and 250 mm / min, the tool was tilted at an angle of 1°, all welds were performed with clockwise direction of rotation, after the tests the welded joints were subjected to a series of destructive testing and nondestructive characterizing each test performed. Butt welding with full penetration and free defects were produced with welding speeds of 100, 150, 200 and 250 mm / min, while with the welding speed 50 mm / min resulted in failure of the void type in the zone of the mixture side of the advance, this defect characterized by inspection by microtomography, which has meant that the welds produced with this welding speed would break the joint weld. In all welding speeds characterization by optical microscopy in cross section of welds revealed a microstructure refining, obtained by dynamic recrystallization phenomenon, for which resulted in an increase in the hardness values in the mixing zone. The results demonstrate that good quality welds can be produced with this process. Moreover, a correlation between the thermal history associated with the process produced the microstructure and mechanical performance of welded joints was established.

Friction Stir Welding (FSW) is a rapidly growing solid state welding process and has been a proven method for welding high strength aluminium alloys which were formerly not recommended for joining by conventional fusion welding methods. Based on the information acquired from previous studies, to obtain a defect free Friction Stir (FS) weld with suitable strength, three basic requirements need to be fulfilled (i) Filling of the cavity created behind the tool pin during its traverse and ensuring satisfactory contact of filled material with newly generated surface (on advancing side trailing edge of the pin) (ii) Disrupting and distributing the oxide layer at the initial weld interface (iii) Adequate level of mixing of both side material (Adjacent and Retreating side) in similar welding. In the case of dissimilar welding mixing is desired in controlled amount (to prevent or curtail formation of intermetallics) depending on material combination. Failure to achieve the first precondition results in void. Second and third precondition are interconnected for similar FSW as adequate mixing in weld helps in disruption and distribution of oxide layer at initial weld interface. Failure to achieve this, results in Joint Line Remnant (JLR). Metal to metal contact cannot be established due to the presence of JLR (aligned oxide particles) and subsequently initial interface is left unwelded which deteriorate the static and dynamic strength of friction stir welds. The problem aggravates while friction stir welding materials with tenacious contaminant layer. Therefore, appropriate stirring (which entails large deformation and mixing) of initial weld interface is essential for successful FS welds. Hence, process aspects assisting mixing of adjacent (Advancing and Retreating side) materials need to identified and studied, which are missing in former studies. Experiments are conducted with classical FS tool (possessing frustum shaped/tapered circular pin) to analyse the effect of welding parameters (tool rotation speed, traverse speed, plunge depth, tool tilt and tool position w.r.t initial interface) and tool runout by changing these parameters over a range. Tool rotation speed, traverse speed, plunge depth and tool position with initial interface are changed continuously and tool tilt and tool runout are changed in discrete steps. Tool geometry is considered to be a prime parameter controlling the magnitude of mixing, as interaction of rotating tool with initial abutting base metal interface makes the process mechanism complex, unlike other solid state welding process, namely forge welding, diffusion welding, friction welding, explosive welding, ultrasonic welding and roll bonding. Furthermore, due to asymmetric nature of material flow in FSW process, the material located in different locations with respect to the tool is subjected to different levels of deformation. For this purpose experiments have been carried out to analyse the effect of different tool geometrical aspects on level of mixing and material flow. On the other hand, visualizing flow and mixing in metals is debatable as insertion of marker material in the weld line can alter the nature of material flow in the weld due to different material flow characteristics of the base and marker materials and introduction of additional interfaces. Further, using dissimilar materials for flow studies cannot be considered for comparison with similar friction stir welds as their flow properties are different. Therefore, an alternate experimental strategy is devised in these studies using physical modelling approach which is effective and helps in identifying and quantifying mixing observed under different tooling and process conditions. In the present investigation, plasticine of primary colours is adopted and the hue attribute of colour is used to study and quantify intermixing. Yellow and Blue plasticine are placed on advancing and retreating sides respectively. The degree of mixing is indicated by the intensity of generated green. Digital images of the cross section in weld nugget region are taken. To obtain hue component of these digital images the RGB color-maps are converted to HSV color-maps. Overall, these studies help in formulating the guidelines which are useful during tool design, and administering the process to obtain a defect free well mixed welds. Based on the experimental results following conclusions are derived. 1. Following process aspects: tool geometry, interface offset, tool rotation and tool runout demonstrate a significant impact on material mixing and breaking and dispersion of initial interface in weld nugget. Tool tilt, plunge depth, tool traverse exhibit negligible effect on degree of mixing. 2. Increase in tool rotation speed (with other parameters fixed) improves mixing substantially but can be increased to a certain limit after which voids emerge due to loss of weld nugget material in the form of flash. 3. Reducing the weld pitch (i.e. increasing tool rotation speed for a given tool traverse speed) reduces the size of the weld nugget and vice versa. Tool traverse speed largely affects advancing side material and rotation speed affects retreating side material. Therefore, for higher weld pitch advancing side material (yellow plasticine) dominates the weld nugget, whereas for lower weld pitch retreating side material (blue plasticine) dominates the weld nugget. 4. The extended macro-structural feature commonly observed in FS welds occurs under influence of plunge depth. Consequently, this macro-structural feature serves as the demarcation point between shoulder affected and pin induced material flow in FS weld. 5. The degree of mixing and subsequent elimination of JLR, improves, when original interface is offset on the advancing side w.r.t tool axis for all the tools investigated in the present study. Triangular and square pin generate larger pin induced mixing which intensifies further with interface on advancing side, indicating tools with such profiles to possess larger safe zone with better mixing characteristics 6. At zero interface offset with all the process parameters fixed, tapered triangular and square pin profile tools produce welds with maximum mixing. For pins with faces, material is transported in lumps around the pin. The size of lump increases with lesser number of faces on pin. Material in the vicinity of the pin experiences spinning/whirling movement. The volume of material experiencing spinning in a single tool revolution depends on (a) weld-pitch (lesser volume of material for smaller weld pitch and vice versa) and (b) number of faces on the pin (lesser volume of material for greater number of faces and vice versa). Therefore, circular pin which can be considered to be made of infinite faces, spinning of material occurs at micro level for relatively smaller weld pitch. 7. For classical FS tool (tapered circular/frustum shape), there exists an optimum ratio (shoulder diameter/pin diameter) situated between 2.7 to 3.6 to produce void free well mixed welds. Tools with ratio of 2.7 and below possess a tendency to produce welds with void but with better mixing in weld region. Tools with ratio of 3.6 and above possess a tendency to produce void free welds but with poor mixing in weld region. Voids appear and grow under following circumstances (a) with increase in pin diameter (for a fixed shoulder diameter), (b) with decrease in shoulder diameter (for a fixed pin diameter), (c) with decrease in pin taper (for a fixed shoulder diameter and top diameter of pin). Pin length has no effect on void formation. However, it is obvious, length of root defect increases with decrease in pin length. The tooling guidelines established in this study through plasticine work can be extended to metallic friction stir welds of various thickness plates by proportionately increasing or decreasing the tool dimensions as long as they fall in the recommended range. 8. Smaller pin diameter tools exhibit higher optimum weld pitch (but with lower degree of mixing) when compared to larger pins (but with higher degree of mixing). Optimum weld pitch represents weld pitch resulting in void free welds. Consequently, tools with higher optimum weld pitch help in welding at a better rate. 9. Tool runout is replicated through tools with eccentric pins. It is interesting to note that, all the tools with pin eccentricities do not assist in mixing but tools with only certain eccentricities (0.3 and 0.6mm assisted in mixing in the present investigation). It implies that tool runout of certain values facilitate mixing in weld. On the other hand density of void increases with eccentricity of pin/tool runout. 10. In dissimilar FSW investigated with plasticine A, B, C and D possessing different flow stresses (flow stresses ascending in the order of A, B, C and D) and strain rate sensitivity of 0.24, 0.22, 0.19 and 0.18 respectively, following inferences are drawn (i) For combination A and B, weldability improves when plasticine B is on Advancing Side (AS) and A is on Retreating Side (RS). The level of mixing also improves when interface is on AS (w.r.t tool axis) for this handedness. On the contrary, severe discontinuities emerge when plasticine B is on RS and A is on AS, especially when interface is closer to the tool pin axis. (ii) For combination A and C, weldability improves when C is on AS and A is on RS. The level of mixing also enhances when interface is on AS (w.r.t tool axis) for this handedness. (iii) For combination A and D, joining is poor for both the handedness. However, nature of defect is different in both the combinations. Cracks are observed when A is located on AS and voids emerge when D is located on AS. On the other hand, placing A on AS results in weld thinning. (iv) For combination B and C, there is no appreciable change in terms of weldability and level of mixing. Both the handedness in this combination yielded fairly similar results. (v) For combination B and D, though discontinuities do not emerge with change in handedness, mixing in weld improves when B is on AS unlike to its location on RS. (vi) For combination C and D, there is no appreciable change in terms of defect formation and level of mixing with change in handedness. Both the handedness in this combination yield fairly similar results.

A procura cada vez mais intensa por redução de peso e consequente diminuição do consumo de combustível dos veículos automotores e aeronaves, tem proporcionado um crescimento constante na utilização do alumínio e suas ligas nos diversos setores da indústria de manufatura. No entanto, a dificuldade de união em juntas de alumínio que atendam requisitos de alta resistência à fratura e à fadiga, tem intensificado as pesquisas por novas tecnologias em seu processo de soldagem. Neste contexto, o processo de soldagem denominado Friction Stir Welding (FSW), vem ganhando espaço nas pesquisas e também na indústria. Neste processo, uma ferramenta não consumível é projetada especialmente para ser introduzida nas juntas das chapas a serem soldadas, gerando calor e misturando mecanicamente o material da junta, consolidando a solda. Este trabalho teve como objetivo avaliar os efeitos dos parâmetros de soldagem FSW, na consolidação das propriedades mecânicas das soldas produzidas, na microestrutura, além de buscar a otimização do processo para a liga em estudo. Para tanto, a geometria da ferramenta foi projetada, fabricada e testada, de forma a definir os parâmetros ideais para obtenção de juntas soldadas sem defeitos. Uma máquina fresadora CNC foi utilizada para a execução dos testes. As soldas foram produzidas em chapas de alumínio da liga Al 5182-O com espessura de 3,25mm, com velocidade rotacional da ferramenta mantida constante em 500 rpm e velocidades de soldagem de 50, 100, 150, 200 e 250 mm/min. A ferramenta foi inclinada em um ângulo de 1º, todas as soldas foram realizadas com sentido horário de rotação, após a realização dos testes as juntas soldadas foram submetidas a uma série de ensaios destrutivos e não destrutivos caracterizando cada teste realizado. Juntas de topo com penetração completa e livre de defeitos foram produzidas com velocidades de soldagem de 100, 150, 200 e 250 mm/min, enquanto com a velocidade de soldagem de 50 mm/min resultou em defeito do tipo vazio na zona da mistura no lado do avanço, defeito este caracterizado através de inspeção por microtomografia, o que fez com que as soldas produzidas com esta velocidade de soldagem rompessem na junta soldada. Em todas as velocidades de soldagem a caracterização através de microscopia óptica na seção transversal das soldas revelou um refino microestrutural, obtido pelo fenômeno de recristalização dinâmica, que resultou em um aumento nos valores de dureza na zona da mistura. Os resultados obtidos demostram que soldas de boa qualidade podem ser produzidas com este processo. Além disso, foi estabelecida uma correlação entre a história térmica associada ao processo de FSW, a microestrutura produzida e o desempenho mecânico das juntas soldadas. / The increasingly intense demand for weight reduction and consequent reduction of the fuel consumption of motor vehicles and aircraft , has provided a steady growth in the use of aluminum and its alloys in various sectors of the manufacturing industry , but the difficulty in joining together aluminum that meet high fracture resistance and fatigue , has intensified the research for new technologies in the process of welding. In this context , the welding process called Friction Stir Welding ( FSW ) has been gaining ground in research and also in industry . In this process , non-consumable tool is specially designed to be inserted in the joints of the plates to be welded, generating heat and mechanically mixing the gasket material, consolidating the weld. This study aimed to evaluate the effects of welding parameters FSW , the consolidation of the mechanical properties of the welds produced, microstructure, and seek to optimize the process for the alloy under study. For this, the geometry of the tool is designed, manufactured and tested in order to define the optimal parameters for obtaining welded joints without defects. A milling machine CNC was used for the tests. The welds were produced in sheets of aluminum alloy Al 5182-O with a thickness of 3,25mm with rotational speed of the tool maintained constant at 500 rpm and welding speeds of 50, 100, 150, 200 and 250 mm / min, the tool was tilted at an angle of 1°, all welds were performed with clockwise direction of rotation, after the tests the welded joints were subjected to a series of destructive testing and nondestructive characterizing each test performed. Butt welding with full penetration and free defects were produced with welding speeds of 100, 150, 200 and 250 mm / min, while with the welding speed 50 mm / min resulted in failure of the void type in the zone of the mixture side of the advance, this defect characterized by inspection by microtomography, which has meant that the welds produced with this welding speed would break the joint weld. In all welding speeds characterization by optical microscopy in cross section of welds revealed a microstructure refining, obtained by dynamic recrystallization phenomenon, for which resulted in an increase in the hardness values in the mixing zone. The results demonstrate that good quality welds can be produced with this process. Moreover, a correlation between the thermal history associated with the process produced the microstructure and mechanical performance of welded joints was established.

A procura cada vez mais intensa por redução de peso e consequente diminuição do consumo de combustível dos veículos automotores e aeronaves, tem proporcionado um crescimento constante na utilização do alumínio e suas ligas nos diversos setores da indústria de manufatura. No entanto, a dificuldade de união em juntas de alumínio que atendam requisitos de alta resistência à fratura e à fadiga, tem intensificado as pesquisas por novas tecnologias em seu processo de soldagem. Neste contexto, o processo de soldagem denominado Friction Stir Welding (FSW), vem ganhando espaço nas pesquisas e também na indústria. Neste processo, uma ferramenta não consumível é projetada especialmente para ser introduzida nas juntas das chapas a serem soldadas, gerando calor e misturando mecanicamente o material da junta, consolidando a solda. Este trabalho teve como objetivo avaliar os efeitos dos parâmetros de soldagem FSW, na consolidação das propriedades mecânicas das soldas produzidas, na microestrutura, além de buscar a otimização do processo para a liga em estudo. Para tanto, a geometria da ferramenta foi projetada, fabricada e testada, de forma a definir os parâmetros ideais para obtenção de juntas soldadas sem defeitos. Uma máquina fresadora CNC foi utilizada para a execução dos testes. As soldas foram produzidas em chapas de alumínio da liga Al 5182-O com espessura de 3,25mm, com velocidade rotacional da ferramenta mantida constante em 500 rpm e velocidades de soldagem de 50, 100, 150, 200 e 250 mm/min. A ferramenta foi inclinada em um ângulo de 1º, todas as soldas foram realizadas com sentido horário de rotação, após a realização dos testes as juntas soldadas foram submetidas a uma série de ensaios destrutivos e não destrutivos caracterizando cada teste realizado. Juntas de topo com penetração completa e livre de defeitos foram produzidas com velocidades de soldagem de 100, 150, 200 e 250 mm/min, enquanto com a velocidade de soldagem de 50 mm/min resultou em defeito do tipo vazio na zona da mistura no lado do avanço, defeito este caracterizado através de inspeção por microtomografia, o que fez com que as soldas produzidas com esta velocidade de soldagem rompessem na junta soldada. Em todas as velocidades de soldagem a caracterização através de microscopia óptica na seção transversal das soldas revelou um refino microestrutural, obtido pelo fenômeno de recristalização dinâmica, que resultou em um aumento nos valores de dureza na zona da mistura. Os resultados obtidos demostram que soldas de boa qualidade podem ser produzidas com este processo. Além disso, foi estabelecida uma correlação entre a história térmica associada ao processo de FSW, a microestrutura produzida e o desempenho mecânico das juntas soldadas. / The increasingly intense demand for weight reduction and consequent reduction of the fuel consumption of motor vehicles and aircraft , has provided a steady growth in the use of aluminum and its alloys in various sectors of the manufacturing industry , but the difficulty in joining together aluminum that meet high fracture resistance and fatigue , has intensified the research for new technologies in the process of welding. In this context , the welding process called Friction Stir Welding ( FSW ) has been gaining ground in research and also in industry . In this process , non-consumable tool is specially designed to be inserted in the joints of the plates to be welded, generating heat and mechanically mixing the gasket material, consolidating the weld. This study aimed to evaluate the effects of welding parameters FSW , the consolidation of the mechanical properties of the welds produced, microstructure, and seek to optimize the process for the alloy under study. For this, the geometry of the tool is designed, manufactured and tested in order to define the optimal parameters for obtaining welded joints without defects. A milling machine CNC was used for the tests. The welds were produced in sheets of aluminum alloy Al 5182-O with a thickness of 3,25mm with rotational speed of the tool maintained constant at 500 rpm and welding speeds of 50, 100, 150, 200 and 250 mm / min, the tool was tilted at an angle of 1°, all welds were performed with clockwise direction of rotation, after the tests the welded joints were subjected to a series of destructive testing and nondestructive characterizing each test performed. Butt welding with full penetration and free defects were produced with welding speeds of 100, 150, 200 and 250 mm / min, while with the welding speed 50 mm / min resulted in failure of the void type in the zone of the mixture side of the advance, this defect characterized by inspection by microtomography, which has meant that the welds produced with this welding speed would break the joint weld. In all welding speeds characterization by optical microscopy in cross section of welds revealed a microstructure refining, obtained by dynamic recrystallization phenomenon, for which resulted in an increase in the hardness values in the mixing zone. The results demonstrate that good quality welds can be produced with this process. Moreover, a correlation between the thermal history associated with the process produced the microstructure and mechanical performance of welded joints was established.

O processo de soldagem por fricção e mistura (FSW) tem despertado grande interesse nos últimos anos e tornou-se uma alternativa para unir materiais de baixa soldabilidade, como as ligas de alumínio das séries 2XXX e 7XXX, as quais são empregadas na estrutura das aeronaves, por possuírem elevada relação resistência/peso. O processo FSW, todavia, causa mudanças microestruturais nos materiais soldados, particularmente na zona misturada (ZM) e nas zonas termicamente (ZTA) ou termomecanicamente (ZTMA) afetadas. Estas mudanças geralmente interferem no desempenho frente à corrosão das ligas soldadas. No presente estudo, a resistência à corrosão das ligas de alumínio 2024-T3 e 7475-T761, unidas pelo processo FSW foi investigada em solução 10 mM de NaCl. Ensaios de visualização em gel ágar-ágar e de imersão associados a técnicas microscópicas foram realizados para investigar o efeito do acoplamento galvânico na corrosão das diferentes regiões da junta soldada. Os resultados do ensaio de visualização em gel mostraram que, quando acopladas, a liga 2024 atua como cátodo e a 7475 como ânodo. Os ensaios de imersão revelaram acoplamento galvânico entre as ligas na zona misturada (ZM). A região mais afetada pela corrosão foi a ZTMA da liga 7475, com corrosão intergranular desde as primeiras horas de imersão. A influência do processo de soldagem na resistência à corrosão das duas ligas de alumínio foi investigada por ensaios eletroquímicos. Os ensaios eletroquímicos adotados foram medidas de potencial de circuito aberto (PCA) em função do tempo de exposição ao meio corrosivo, espectroscopia de impedância eletroquímica (EIE) e curvas de polarização potenciodinâmica. Os ensaios de polarização mostraram elevada atividade eletroquímica na zona de mistura indicada pelos altos valores de densidade de corrente em comparação com as demais zonas testadas. Os resultados de EIE globais mostraram que nas primeiras horas de exposição ao eletrólito o processo de corrosão foi predominantemente controlado pela liga 7475; todavia, com o tempo de exposição ao eletrólito, a corrosão passou a ser controlada pela liga 2024. / Friction stir welding (FSW) has roused great interest in recent years and it is now an alternative for joining materials of low weldability, such as the aluminum alloys of the 2XXX and 7XXX series, used in the aircrafts structure due to their high strength /weight ratio. However, FSW causes material microstructural changes, mainly in the stir zone (SZ), the heat affected zone (HAZ) or thermomechanically (TMAZ) affected zones of the materials welded. These generally interfere with the corrosive performance of the welded joint. In the present study, the corrosion resistance of the 2024-T3 and 7475-T761aluminum alloys, joined by FSW was investigated in 10 mM NaCl electrolyte. Agar-agar gel and immersion tests associated with microscopic techniques were performed to investigate the effect of galvanic coupling between the welded materials. Results from this test showed that, when galvanically coupled, the 2024 alloy acts as cathode and the 7475 as anode. Immersion tests revealed galvanic coupling between the alloys in the SZ. The zone most susceptible to corrosion was the TMAZ of the 7475. Intergranular corrosion was observed in this zone since the first hours of immersion. The influence of the welding process on the corrosion resistance of the alloys was also evaluated by electrochemical tests. The electrochemical tests adopted were open circuit potential measurements (OCP) as a function of time of exposure to the electrolyte, electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) and potentiodynamic polarization curves. The polarization tests showed high electrochemical activity in the stir zone indicated by the high current densities measured comparatively to the other tested zones. The global EIS results indicated that in the first few hours of exposure to the electrolyte the corrosion process was predominantly controlled by the 7475 alloy; however, with time of exposure to the electrolyte, the corrosion was controlled by alloy 2024.