A research report submitted to the Faculty of Science, University of the Witwatersrand, in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science by coursework and research report. Johannesburg, 13 May 2014. / The African baobab (Adansonia digitata) is a multi-purpose tree that is important among African villages as it provides food and a range of raw materials. Its fruits provide essential nutrients and are sold to generate income. As baobab fruits are important to the livelihoods of many people, it is important to understand the causes of differences in fruit production in order to maximise use and for conservation purposes. Many studies have examined fruit production to understand the causes of variation in fruit yields. In Venda, a region northern South Africa, differences in baobab fruit yield has been recorded for 8 years, thus classifying individual trees as either poor producers or producers (Venter and Witkowski, 2011). Poor producers are adult trees producing less than five fruits each year and some not producing at all. On the other hand, adult trees producing more than five fruits each year are referred as producers. Causes of this difference in fruit production have not been identified. Among other factors, the observed difference in fruit production could be related to differences in ploidy-level among baobab trees. Importantly, few or no studies to our knowledge have been carried out to confirm whether differences in fruit production among baobab trees are related to a difference in ploidy-level. The well-known and widespread mainland African baobab, Adansonia digitata, is known to be a tetraploid (four sets of chromosomes). Recently, a difference in ploidy-level has been revealed. A new diploid species, Adansonia kilima, has been identified in Africa (Pettigrew et al., 2012). Morphological characteristics (floral, pollen, and stomatal size and density), ploidy, and molecular phylogenetics suggest the presence of a new species. This new species has been reported to overlap the well-known and widespread tetraploid A. digitata’s distribution in Venda. Consequently, the presence of a diploid species that reproduces with a tetraploid species could result in triploid progeny and contribute to the observed differences in fruit production in these baobab trees. The objectives of this study were (i) to assess if there is any difference in ploidy-level between the poor producer and producer baobab trees in Venda using flow cytometry, (ii) to assess if stomatal density and size correlate to differences in ploidy-level, and (iii) to use microsatellites to estimate levels of gene flow between these baobab trees. Morphological results showed that stomatal size and density were not significantly different between poor producer and producer trees and these features may not be true indicators of difference in ploidy-level for baobabs. Gene flow results showed that there was high mean genetic heterozygosity and low population differentiation expressed in all populations. This suggests that inbreeding was not responsible for the differences in fruit production between poor producer and producer trees. Low population differentiation observed among the populations indicated that a large number of common alleles were shared among the populations. Therefore, the high gene flow observed among the populations suggests that poor producer and producer trees were sharing alleles, and what is causing the differences in fruit production remains unclear.

Thesis (MScAgric)--University of Stellenbosch, 2007. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The South African deciduous fruit industry is influenced by a number of factors including increased globalisation of markets, trade liberalisation, advances in information technology and consumer preferences. These factors have a continuous effect on the competitiveness of the industry and force deciduous fruit producers and processors to position themselves as capable competitors in the global free-market environment. This study measures the competitiveness of the South African deciduous fruit supply chains relative to those of Chile in an attempt to address the following research question: What is the relative global competitive advantage of the South African deciduous fruit supply chains relative to those of Chile? To adequately address this research question, data from the Food and Agricultural Organisation of the United Nations (FAO, 2005) is used to examine the competitiveness of the supply chains. Three internationally recognised indexes are also used to calculate the comparative and competitive advantages of the deciduous fruit supply chains, namely, the Net Export index (NXi), Revealed Comparative Advantage (RCA#) index and the Relative Revealed Comparative Trade Advantage (RTA) index. The results clearly show that South Africa’s deciduous fruit supply chains have a marginally relative competitive advantage, with most of the deciduous fruit products having RCA# and RTA index values situated around 0 to 10. The analysis shows that the South African deciduous fruit industry is struggling, with a marginal global comparative and competitive advantage in terms of its value added products. Chile, on the other hand, has a relatively better revealed comparative advantage as well as a higher relative global competitive advantage in most of the deciduous fruit supply chains. South Africa has a relatively better global comparative advantage and competitive advantage over Chile only in apple juice and dried apricots. Despite South Africa’s marginal competitiveness, most of the deciduous fruit supply chains are experiencing an upward competitiveness, which is not the case for Chile. The results also reveal that the competitiveness of most of the deciduous fruit supply chains in South Africa, except for the apple and apricot chains, decreases from primary to processed products which implies that value-adding opportunities are still limited or untapped. On the basis of these findings, this study makes an attempt to identify and discuss some of the factors that affect the competitiveness of the industry by using a framework of competitive advantage analysis proposed by Porter (1990, 1998). The most important factors that impact on the competitiveness of the South African deciduous fruit industry are availability of skilled labour; cost and quality of unskilled labour; availability and quality of capital; cost of technology; local market growth; threat of substitutes; land reform policy; labour legislation; current exchange rate (current strength of the rand); BEE policy; lack of timely and accurate information and the inaccuracy of some of the data of the Perishable Products Export Council Board (PPECB); continued agricultural subsidies received by growers in countries competing with South Africa in global markets; and the high incidence of HIV/AIDS and crime. In order for the industry to enhance its competitiveness, a number of strategies to be adopted by all participants in the supply chain are suggested at the end of this study. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die Suid Afrikaanse sagtevrugte bedryf word beïnvloed deur verskeie faktore insluitende groter wordende internasionale market, handels liberalisering, vooruitgang in inligtings tegnologie en verbruikers voorkeure. Hierdie faktore het ‘n voordurende effek op die mededingendheid van die bedryf en dwing die sagtevrugte produsente en produseerders om hulself te posisioneer as bekwame mededingers in die internasionale mark omgewing. Hierdie study meet die mededingendheid van die Suid Afrikaanse sagtevrugte voorsieningsketting relatief tot die van Chili in ‘n poging om die volgende navorsingsvraag te beantwoord: Wat is die relatiewe internasionale mededingende voordeel van die Suid Afrikaanse sagtevrugte voorsieningsketting relatief tot die van Chili. Om die navorsingsvraag na behore te beantwoord word inligting van die Voedsel en Landou Organisasie (Food and Agricultural Organization, FAO) van die Verenigde Nasies van 2005 gebruik om die mededingendheid van die voorsieningskettings te verduidelik. Drie internasionaal erkende indekse word gebruik om die vergelykende en mededingende voordele van die sagtevrugte bedryf voorsieningskettings te vergelyk naamlik die Netto Uitvoer indeks (NU), Openbare Vergelykende Voordeel (OVV) indeks en die Relatiewe Openbare Vergelykende Handels Voordeel (ROVHV) indeks. Die resultate wys duidelik dat Soud Afrika se sagtevrugte voorsieningsketting ‘n relatief marginale kompeteerdende voordeel het, met meestse van die sagtevrugte produkte met OVV en ROVHV indeks waardes van tussen 0 en 10 het. Die ontleedings toon aan dat die Suid Afrikaanse sagtevrugte bedryf dit moeilik vind met om internasionall mededingend te wees met slegs ‘n maginale internasionale vergelykende en mededingende voordeel in terme van waarde toegevoegde produkte. Anders as Suid Afrika het Chili ‘n relatief beter openbare vergelykende voordeel as ook ‘n beter relatiewe internasionale vergelykende voordeel in meeste van die sagtevrugte voordieningskettings as Suid Afrika. Suid Afrika het slegs relatiewe beter internasionale en mededingende voordele in appelsap en gedroogde appelkose as Chili. Ongeag Suid Afrika se marginale mededingendheid ondervind meeste van die voordieningskettings opwaartse mededinging wat die die geval is met Chili nie. Die resultate het ook gewys dat die mededingendheid van meeste van die sagtevrugte voorsieningskettings in Suid Afrika afneem van primere na vervaardigde produkte, behalwe vir die appel en appelkoos waardekettings, wat impliseer dat waardetoevoeging moontlikhede steeds baie beperk is of nog nooit ontgin is nie. Op basis van die bevindinge is ‘n poging aangewend om sommige van die faktore wat die mededingendheid van die bedryf affekteer te identifiseer en te bespreek deur gebruik te maak van die raamwerk van mededingende voordeel ontleedings soos voorgestel deur Porter (1990, 1998). Die mees belangrike faktore wat ‘n inpak het op die mededingendheid van die van die bedryf is die beskikbaarheid van opgeleide arbeid; die koste en kwaliteit van onopgeleide aerbeid; beskikbaarheid en kwaliteit van kapitaal; koste van tegnologie; groei in plaaslike mark; gevaar van substitute; grondhervormings beleid; arbeids wetsgewing; huidige wisselkoers (huidige sterkte van die Rand); swart bemagtigings beleid; tekort aan tydige en akkurate inligting en die onakkuraatheid van sommige data van die Bederfbare Produkte Uitvoer Raad; landbou subsidies aan produsente in lande waarmee Suid Afrika internasionaal meeding en die hoë voorvalle van HIV/AIDS en misdaad. Om mededingendheid binne die berdyf te verbeter word verskeie strategie voorgestel wat rolspelers in die bedryf kan implementer.

Thesis (MComm)—Stellenbosch University, 2015. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The purpose of this study was to undertake an inquiry on the competitive performance of the South African stone fruit industry since the early 1960s, with an emphasis on the more recent years since the mid-1990s, when the industry was deregulated. A comprehensive approach was applied in reaching conclusion in this study by employing a five-step analytical framework, built on well-established approaches by Balassa (revealed comparative advantage, RCA), Vollrath (relative trade advantage, RTA) and the Porter Diamond Model, adapted to accommodate innovative statistical methods to reflect differences in opinions and views more accurately. Competitiveness in this study is defined to give effect to the global trade orientation of the industry as the sustained ability of the South African stone fruit industry to attract investment by trading its produce competitively within the global marketplace, whilst continuously striving to earn returns greater that the opportunity cost of scarce resources engaged. Five phases were identified in the competitive performance of the South African stone fruit industry since 1961, showing the fluctuating nature of the performance of this industry:  Phase I (1961-1982): Increasingly regulated competitiveness  Phase II (1983-1990): Politically constrained competitiveness  Phase III (1991-1999): Economic deregulation and internal rivalry  Phase IV (1999-2007): Towards international competitiveness  Phase V (2007 – present): Increasingly sustained competitiveness The RTA calculations, including both exports and imports, showed that the industry is highly competitive, both internationally – in the Southern Hemisphere where this industry is only out-performed by Chile and locally – compared to other South African (SA) horticultural crops, with plums consistently claiming the top position when individual stone fruit types in the SA deciduous fruit category are analysed. Through the Stone Fruit Executive Survey (SFES), views and opinions of prominent industry role-players were critically employed to interrogate the topic under discussion. A total of 84 factors affecting the competitiveness of the industry were identified, and these were rated on a five-point Likert scale (where 5 were most enhancing and 1 was most constraining). This study expanded the analytical framework used in recent agri-competitiveness studies to verify and cross-check the results and findings through statistical procedures, such as cluster analyses, principle component analyses and Cronbach’s alpha. This broadened the scope of analysis by accommodating the variance in opinion statements from the respondents. As different cluster groupings based on functional value chain positions were analysed, it became clear that there were significant differences between the respondents involved in the primary production and packing/processing of stone fruit and the respondents involved in activities lower down the value chain, such as in pack houses/processors and exporters/marketers. Further down the value chain the respondents expressed more optimistic views and positive statements on competitiveness than those exposed to primary production risks and uncertainties. This confirms the importance to expand competitive analysis to different points in the value chain The rated factors were grouped into Porter’s six determinants and the general scored ratings yielded the two most enhancing determinants, being business strategy, structure and rivalry (3.55 out of 5) and related and supporting industries (3.14 out of 5). Production factor conditions (2.81 out of 5) and demand/market factors (2.76 out of 5) were identified as being less enhancing determinants. Chance factors (2.66 out of 5) and government support and policy (2.35 out of 5) were identified as the two most constraining determinants. The current approach is that the framework of Esterhuizen (2006) is applied to agriculture-related competitiveness studies. This study, however, investigated the extension of the conventional model by adapting the Porter diamond model within the frameworks of the Institute for Management Development’s World Competitiveness Yearbook (WCY) and the World Economic Forum’s Global Competitiveness Report (GCR), which generally focus on the macro-economic situation. It was confirmed that the stone fruit industry is integrated into and forms part of the ‘broader economic picture’. The results and findings of this study were discussed in a number of focus sessions with industry role players. A strategic planning framework was drafted, which consisted out of eleven industry level strategic proposals. Some of the most important strategic improvements to enhance competitive performance argued for in this study are improved industry-based lobby discussions, i.e. to build and strengthen the necessary communication between industry role players and government agencies through an improved strategic intelligence database, by focusing on aspects such as trade agreements, international market development and policy development. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die doelwit van hierdie studie was om ’n ondersoek van die mededingende prestasie van die Suid-Afrikaanse steenvrugbedryf sedert die vroeë 1960’s te onderneem, met die klem op die meer onlangse tydperk sedert die middel-1990’s, toe die bedryf gedereguleer is. ’n Omvattende benadering is ingespan deur gebruik te maak van ’n vyfstap- analitiese raamwerk wat geskoei is op die goed gevestigde benaderings van Balassa (onthulde vergelykende voordeel – revealed comparative advantage - RCA), Vollrath (relatiewe handelsvoordeel – relative trade advantage - RTA) en die Porter-diamantmodel, wat aangepas is om innoverende statistiese metodes te akkommodeer om verskille in gesigspunte beter te weergee. Mededingendheid in hierdie studie word gedefinieer om effek te gee aan die globale handelsoriëntasie van die bedryf as die volhoubare vermoë van die Suid-Afrikaanse steenvrugbedryf om belegging te lok deur sy produkte mededingend in die globale mark te verhandel, terwyl daar voortdurend gestreef word om opbrengste te verdien wat groter is as die geleentheidskoste van die skaars hulpbronne gebruik. Vyf fases in die mededingendheid van die Suid-Afrikaanse steenvrugbedryf is sedert 1961 geïdentifiseer en toon die wisselende aard van die prestasie in hierdie bedryf:  Fase I (1961-1982): Toenemend gereguleerde mededingendheid  Fase II (1983-1990): Polities beperkte mededingendheid  Fase III (1991-1999): Ekonomiese deregulering en interne mededinging  Fase IV (1999-2007): Op weg na internasionale mededingendheid  Fase V (2007 – vandag): Toenemend volhoubare mededingendheid Die RTA-berekenings, wat uitvoere en invoere insluit, het aangetoon dat die bedryf hoogs mededingend is, beide internasionaal – waar die industrie slegs die Chili oortref word en plaaslik – in vergelyking met ander Suid-Afrikaanse (SA) hortologiese gewasse, met pruime wat voorop staan wanneer individuele steenvrugsoorte in die SA sagtevrugtebedryf geanaliseer is. Deur die Steenvrug Uitvoerende Opname (Stone Fruit Executive Survey (SFES)) is die sienings en opinies van vooraanstaande rolspelers krities gebruik om die onderwerp te ondervra. ’n Totaal van 84 faktore wat die mededingendheid van die bedryf beïnvloed, is geïdentifiseer, en hierdie is op ’n vyfpunt-Likertskaal geëvalueer (met 5 as die mees versterkend en 1 as die mees stremmend). Hierdie studie het die analitiese raamwerk wat in onlangse agri-mededingendheidstudies gebruik is, uitgebrei om die resultate deur middel van statistiese prosedures te verifieer en te kruiskontroleer, naamlik deur bondelanalises, hoofkomponent-ontledings (principle component analyses) en Cronbach se alfa. Dít het die strekking van die analise verbreed deur die verskillende opinies van die respondente te akkommodeer. Soos verskillende bondels op grond van funksionele posisies in die waardeketting geanaliseer is, het dit duidelik geword dat daar noemenswaardige verskille was tussen die respondente in die primêre produksie en verpakking/verwerking van steenvrugte en die respondente betrokke in aktiwiteite laer af in die waardeketting, soos in pakhuise/verwerkers en uitvoerders/bemarkers. Verder af in die waardeketting het die respondente meer optimistiese opinies en positiewe stellings oor mededingendheid uitgespreek as dié wat aan primêre produksierisiko’s en onsekerhede blootgestel was. Dit bevestig die belangrikheid daarvan om mededingende analise na verskillende punte in die waardeketting uit te brei. Die gemete faktore is in Porter se ses determinante verdeel en die algemeen aangetekende skattings het die twee mees versterkende determinante opgelewer, naamlik sakestrategie, struktuur en mededinging (3.55 uit 5) en verwante en ondersteunende bedrywe (3.14 uit 5). Produksiefaktortoestande (2.81 uit 5) en vraag/markfaktore (2.76 uit 5) is geïdentifiseer as minder versterkende determinante. Toevallige faktore (2.66 uit 5) en regeringsondersteuning en -beleid (2.35 uit 5) is geïdentifiseer as die twee mees stremmende determinante. Die huidige benadering is dat Esterhuizen (2006) se raamwerk op landbou-verwante mededingendheidstudies toegepas word. Hierdie studie het egter die uitbreiding van die konvensionele model ondersoek deur die Porter-diamantmodel binne die raamwerke van die Institute for Management Development se World Competitiveness Yearbook (WCY) en die World Economic Forum se Global Competitiveness Report (GCR) aan te pas. Hierdie dokumente fokus oor die algemeen op die makro-ekonomiese situasie. Daar is bevestig dat die steenvrugbedryf in die ‘breër ekonomiese situasie’ geïntegreer is en daarvan deel is. Die resultate en bevindings van hierdie studie is in ’n aantal fokussessies met bedryfsrolspelers bespreek. ʼn Strategiese beplanningsraamwerk was opgestel wat bestaan uit elf industrie-vlak strategiese voorstelle. Van die belangrikste strategiese verbeterings om mededingende prestasie te verhoog, waarvoor daar in hierdie studie geargumenteer is, is verbeterde “drukgroepgesprekke”, m.a.w. om die nodige kommunikasie tussen bedryfsrolspelers en die regering te bou en te verstrek deur ’n verbeterde strategiese intelligensie- databasis wat o.a. fokus op aspekte soos handelsooreenkomste, internasionale markontwikkeling en beleidsontwikkeling.

Thesis (MBA)--Stellenbosch University, 2015. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Pierre du Plooy co-founded Prophyta (Pty) Ltd, a company that provided technical consultation services in the fields of horticulture and soil science to the South African deciduous fruit industry. Initially, the founders employed goods-dominant logic, viewing their services as intangible products that needed to be sold to clients. Between the founding of Prophyta in September 2012 and November 2014, Pierre du Plooy’s value proposition, service offering and revenue model diverged from those of other consultants in Prophyta, to the extent that he resigned from Prophyta and became an independent horticultural consultant. The study focussed on Pierre du Plooy’s existing clients. The clients were surveyed to determine their satisfaction with the current service offering, their interest in additional services, their openness toward alternative revenue models and key success factors according to them. A questionnaire was designed and 29 clients were invited to participate in the survey. Six responded, resulting in a response rate of 21 percent. Client satisfaction with the current service was measured using SERVQUAL. Fifteen statements applicable to the horticulture advisory service were made and respondents’ expectations and perceptions measured on a five point Likert scale. The values obtained for the expectation and corresponding perception per statement were used to calculate a difference score. A negative value for the difference score meant the perception of the current service exceeds client expectations regarding the statement in question. In general, the clients were satisfied with the current service offering. Two main aspects needed focus. A horticulturist needs to stay up-to-date with new research and technologies, requiring him to stay abreast of relevant literature, as well as attending symposia and production areas abroad. A horticulturist also has to be very attentive to keep classified information shared by clients confidential. The first aspect relates to the creation of new knowledge, the second to strengthening and building of relationships based on trust. According to the literature, both these aspects form the bases of competition and are very important in obtaining and maintaining a competitive advantage. It is recommended that Pierre du Plooy focus on above-mentioned aspects in order to maintain a sustainable competitive advantage over competitors. It is also recommended to repeat the client survey every two years in order to monitor changing client expectations and make sure client needs are being met.

A research report submitted to the Faculty of Science, University of the Witwatersrand, in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the Degree of Masters of Environmental Sciences by Coursework and Research Report. Johannesburg 24 March 2016 / In southern Africa, the baobab (Adansonia digitata L.) is an economically important trees because it contributes significantly to the livelihoods of local people, particularly in northern Limpopo in South Africa (the southern-most edge of the baobab distribution). All parts of the baobab are useful and considered important for subsistence and commercial uses. Understanding factors that affect fruit and seed production is important to better characterize the long-term success of tree populations. Some adult baobab trees have high fruit production (50 −299 fruits per tree, per year) and are subsequently called ‘producers’ or ‘female’ trees, while there are other trees that produce fewer fruits (< 5 fruits per tree, per year) that are called ‘poor-producers’ or ‘male’ trees. For this study, baobab fruit dimensions (mass, length, volume and ratio) were, measured and compared between artificially- and naturally-pollinated producer and poor-producer trees. Fruit dimensions were also correlated to the number of seeds per fruit. Using 2D geometric morphometric analysis, baobab fruit shapes were analyzed and compared to determine if fruit shape differs between fruits formed on producer and poor-producer baobab trees. I found no significant difference in fruit shape between producer and poor-producer baobab trees. Although, artificially-pollinated trees produced bigger and more uniform shaped fruits and contained more seeds in comparison to the smaller unevenly shaped fruits produced by naturally-pollinated trees. Furthermore, I compared fruit and seed production between naturally-pollinated producer/poor-producer and between artificially-pollinated producer/poor-producer trees that occur on different land use types (i.e. nature reserves, rocky outcrops, plains, fields (land use for agricultural purposes) and villages) in Northern Venda, South Africa. There was a significant difference in fruit and seed production between naturally and artificially-pollinated producer and poor producer trees that occur on different land use types. On average, producer trees yielded more seeds than poor-producer trees. The highest fruit and seed production was recorded in fields and villages. Seed mass variation also differed significantly between producer and poor-producer trees and between the different land use types. A very weak negative relationship between baobab seed number and mass was found in both producer and poor-producer baobab trees. Baobab seed viability was estimated using a 0.1% tetrazolium solution, 100% viability was found in all tested seeds from both producer and poor-producer baobab trees. Result of this study may aid with the identification of land use types where baobabs have the lowest seed production and therefore require additional conservation effort to ensure that fruits are harvested sustainably. The estimation of seed production may improve the ability to estimate the total seed oil that is available in each land use type. / M T 2016

Thesis (MScAgric)--Stellenbosch University, 2004. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The agro-food sector is swiftly moving towards an internationally interconnected system with a large variety of complex relationships, due to year-round supply, product differentiation and developments in information technologies, with the aim of enhancing competitiveness. In this context, vertical linking in the agro-food business especially, vertical coordination has gained attention. A case study approach is used to analyse two fruit supply chains -the table grape and citrus fruit chain. The study uses a transaction cost approach to analyse the supply chain of the fruit industry in South Africa. Transaction cost analysis (TCA) represents one possible approach to understanding and evaluating supply chain management and has the potential to be combined in an interdisciplinary setting with the insights provided by the marketing, logistics and organisational behaviour literatures. By means of literature study, constructs are identified that help explain the choices made, with regard to governance structures and the sources of competitiveness of supply chains. The question of governance structures is addressed in transaction cost economics (TCE) where asset specificity is of major importance. The sources of competitiveness are addressed both in the literature study and from discussions undertaken with key industry representatives. The empirical application of the TCE theory helped demonstrate the extent to which the exporter has adapted to changes in the global environment. The study revealed that for both supply chains, the role-players overcompensate to minimise their risk. Hence vertical integration rather than outsourcing takes precedence. Bilateral contracting and strategic alliances should be given priority to enhance effective communication, commitment and collective decision-making. This growing recognition of the competitive advantage that can be gained through improving coordination in the supply chain is the starting point for SCM initiatives and, these are important signals that in the long run will determine the sustainability and competitiveness of the industry. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die landbou-voedsel sektor is vinnig besig om na 'n internasionale interafhanklike stelsel met 'n groat verskeidenheid van ingewikkelde verhoudings te beweeg, as gevolg van heel-jaar aanbod, produk differensiasie en ontwikkeling in tegnologie, met die doel om meer mededingend te wees. In hierdie konteks geniet vertikale skakelinge in die landbou-voedsel bedryf, en veral vertikale koordinasie, baie aandag. 'n Gevalle studie benadering is gevolg om twee vrugte waardekettings te analiseer -die tafeldruiwe en sitrus ketting. Die studie maak gebruik van 'n transaksie koste benadering om die waardeketting van die Suid-Afrikaanse vrugte bedryf te analiseer. Transaksie koste analiese (TKA) verteenwoordig een moontlike benadering om waardekettingbestuur te verstaan en te evalueer. Dit het oak die potensiaal om gekombineer te word in 'n interdissiplinere omgewing met insigte wat deur bemarking, logistiek en organisatoriese gedrags literatuur verskaf word. Konstruksies is met behulp van literatuur studies ge"identifiseer wat help om die keuses wat gemaak is met betrekking tot bestuurstrukture en die bran van mededingendheid van waardekettings. Die kwessie van bestuurstrukture word aangespreek deur transaksie koste ekonomie (TKE) waarin bate-spesifiekheid van groat belang is. Die bran van mededingendheid is aangespreek deur beide literatuur te bestudeer en deur besprekings met sleutel-figure in die bedryf. Die empiriese toepassing van die TKE teorie help om die mate waarin die uitvoerder aangepas het tot veranderinge in die globale omgewing aan te toon. Die studie bewys dat firmas in beide waardekettings oorkompenseer vir transaksie koste deur vertikale integrasie in plaas van kontrakte. Bilaterale kontrakterings en strategiese vennootskappe moet prioriteit geniet om effektiewe kommunikasie, verpligtinge en kollektiewe besluitneming te verbeter. Die groeiende erkenning wat gegee word aan mededingende voordeel wat gewen kan word deur koordinasie in die waardeketting te verbeter is die begin punt vir ketting initiatiewe en, dit is belangrike seine wat die volhoubaarheid en mededingendheid van die bedryf in die lang termyn sal bepaal.

Study project (MBA)--University of Stellenbosch, 2003 / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Deregulation of the South African (SA) fruit export industry in 1997 has caused fragmentation in the supply chain, leading to significant inefficiencies. This sub-optimal performance of the supply chain has made it difficult to respond to increasingly stringent market requirements. One of the biggest challenges is legal and trade related traceability requirements. Traceability of all fruit exported to the European Union will be regulated from 1 Jan 2005 and to the United States of America from 12 December 2003, affecting more than 80% of SA fruit exports. Trading partners are also starting to demand certain global standards for traceability purposes. The SA fruit export industry is not providing a sufficient level of traceability at supply chain level and cannot afford the risk of not having an effective traceability system, based on common procedures and standards, in case of a food safety incident. Apart from the need to meet traceability requirements, the inefficiencies in the SA supply chain; the cost pressure from legal and trade related traceability requirements; and the pressure on high volume commodities (due to the general oversupply of fruit world-wide), have created a need for additional efficiencies in the supply chain. The consumer packaged goods industry has developed e-commerce building blocks based on global standards that offer automated traceability of fruit exports as well as significant benefits impacting the bottom line by ten to fifteen percent for companies of all sizes. These building blocks are available to the SA fruit export industry and would enable the industry to have traceability in place, as well as provide significant efficiency benefits. Further, by being an early adopter of these building blocks, the industry would be able to achieve a strategic advantage over its southern hemisphere competitors. Enough cohesion, willing participants and supportive thinking seem to exist to create the critical mass for the implementation of such an automated traceability system. The study concludes that automated traceability is feasible for the SA fruit export industry. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Deregulering van die Suid-Afrikaanse vrugte uitvoer industrie in 1997 het fragmentering van inligting en standaarde veroorsaak wat gelei het tot ondoeltreffendheid in die verskaffingsketting. Die onderprestering van die verskaffingsketting maak dit moeilik vir die industrie om te reageer op die toenemende vereistes van uitvoer markte. Een van die grootste uitdagings is wetgewende en handelsverwante vereistes van naspoorbaarheid. Naspoorbaarheid van alle vrugte uitvoere na die Europese Unie en die Verenigde State van Amerika sal onderskeidelik vanaf 1 Januarie 2005 en 16 Desember 2003 gereguleer word, wat meer as 80% van alle SA uitvoere sal beïnvloed. Handelsvennote begin ook om sekere globale standaarde te vereis. Die SA vrugte uitvoer industrie voorsien nie 'n genoegsame vlak van naspoorbaarheid in die verskaffingsketting nie en kan nie die risiko bekostig om, in die geval van 'n voedselveiligheidsvoorval, nie 'n effektiewe naspoorbaarheidstelsel (gebaseer op gemeenskaplike prosedures en standaarde) in plek te hê nie. Afgesien van die behoefte om naspoorbaarheidvereistes na te kom, het die ondoeltreffendheid in die SA vrugte uitvoerketting; die druk van wetgewende en handelsverwante naspoorbaarheidkostes; en die druk op hoë volume vrugte (as gevolg van die algemene ooraanbod van vrugte wêreldwyd); die behoefte laat ontstaan vir addisionele doeltreffendheid in die verskaffingsketting. Die verbruikers verpakkingsgoedere industrie het e-handel boustene ontwikkel gebaseer op globale standaarde wat ge-outomatiseerde naspoorbaarheid, asook potensiële doeltreffendheidsvoordele, van tien tot vyftien persent op winste, verseker vir maatskappy van alle groottes. Die boustene is beskikbaar vir die SA vrugte uitvoer industrie en sal die industrie in staat stelom naspoorbaarheidvereistes na te kom, asook aansienlik meer doeltreffendheid te verseker. Verder, 'n vroeë aanvaarding van die boustene, sal die industrie in staat stelom 'n strategiese voordeel te hê bo suidelike halfrond mededingers. Genoeg kohesie, gewillige deelnemers, en ondersteunende denke bleik beskikbaar te wees om die kritiese massa te bereik vir die implementering van só 'n ge-outomatiseerde naspoorbaarheidsisteem. Die gevolgtrekking van die studie IS dat die SA vrugte uitvoer industrie vatbaar is vir ge-outomatiseerde naspoorbaarheid.

PhDRDV / Institute for Rural Development / See the attached abstract below

Thesis (Ph. D. Agriculture (Agricultural Economics)) -- University of limpopo, 2021 / The study analysed the effects of international trade on employment and wages in the fruit industry of South Africa. However, the study prioritised six industries within the fruit industry which are pertinent contributors to economic growth, international trade, employment and source of wages. The six types of fruits considered for this study are apples, apricots, avocadoes, oranges, pears and table grapes. The relationship between international trade and labour market is continuously significant, especially with increasing number of trade agreements amongst countries and regions. The international trade has been identified by many economic authors to be amongst main contributors of employment and wage source in the exporting countries. The overarching theoretical framework guiding research on the impact of international trade on employment and wages is based on Krugman’s theory of imperfect competition. The theory states that international trade on similar products amongst developed and developing countries works in favour of the developed countries based on the following arguments: developing countries export primary commodities; developed countries export beneficiated goods; firms in developed countries are mostly vertically integrated with a higher market share. The overall aim of the study is to analyse the effects of international trade on employment and wages in the South African fruit industry between the period between 1990 and 2018. There are five objectives for the study and they are broken down as follows: outlining the performance of the South African fruit industry in terms on international trade, employment and wages; secondly, to analyse the impact of international trade flow on employment and wages in the selected six South African fruit industries; thirdly, to determine the causality effects amongst employment, wages and exports within the six South African fruit industry; fourthly, to determine the response of employment, exports and imports on changes in wages within the selected six South African fruit industries; and lastly, to determine the effects of European Union’s Trade Development and Cooperation Agreement on wages in the South African fruit industry. vi The study adopted various analytical techniques to address the objectives. Those analytical techniques were used as follows: descriptive statistics, to profile the six prioritised fruit industries; error correction model, to analyse the impact of international trade flow on employment and wages in the selected six South African fruit industries; granger causality test, to determine the causality effects amongst employment, wages and international trade within the six South African fruit industry; two-staged least squares approach, to determine the response of employment, exports and imports on changes in wages within the selected six South African fruit industries and ordinary least squares, to determine the effects of European Union’s Trade Development and Cooperation Agreement on wages in the South African fruit industry. The findings from descriptive analysis show that all six prioritised fruit industries contributes significantly to the international trade, employment and wages in South Africa. The error correction model for all six fruit industries indicates the existence of a long-run relationship amongst total employment, wages and international trade. Therefore, findings for all fruit industries show that exports output lead to an increase in total employment in a long run, while imports output lead to a decrease in total employment in a long run. The granger causality test for all six fruit industries highlight that there is a causality effect between total employment and exports output. However, there is no causality effect between total employment and imports output, even between exports output and imports output. The results from the two-staged least squares indicate that the wages are affected positively by the exports output. However, there are other factors that affect wages positively such as net realisation from exports, local sales, total gross value of production and foreign direct investment. The wages are negatively affected by imports output, average exchange rate and average prices. The ordinary least squares for all estimated fruit industries show that the volumes of exports to the European Union market affect the wages positively, vii while other variables that are positively affected by the exports to EU market include amongst others the production volumes, productivity, total area planted and foreign direct investment. However, the volumes of exports to the European Union market negatively affect the processing volumes of the fruit industries in South Africa, domestic consumption per capita and average prices. Conclusively, it is recommended that fruit producers, with support of government institutions responsible for trade promotions, should strengthen trade cooperation with various trading blogs, more particularly the European Union; United Kingdom; countries in Asia and Middle East; and African states. This exercise will highly enhance the capacity of South African fruit producers to exploit the untapped international trade opportunities from different markets. Furthermore, it is prudent to recommend that the government should continue to regulate the labour market so that employees could benefit from net realisation from international trade. This will probably reduce the instances of unfair labour practices such as lower wages, child labour, abnormal working hours and overall poor working conditions.

The main objective of this study was to analyse South African (SA) citrus farmers’ perceptions of the benefits and costs of complying with quality assurance (QA) certification schemes for citrus exports to the European Union (EU). The study used an e-mail and postal survey questionnaire mailed to a stratified random sample of 260 SA commercial citrus growers during July 2007. The survey yielded 108 usable responses - a response rate of 10.8% from the target population of 1001 commercial SA citrus growers. The main factors motivating respondents to adopt QA certification were to keep and maintain access to existing markets; to improve customer confidence in their products; to access new markets; and to meet food safety and retailer requirements. Principal Component Analysis (PCA) identified six underlying dimensions of motivators, which suggest a drive by sampled respondents to gain certification to meet market requirements, achieve intra-farm benefits such as cost-reduction, and to remain competitive in existing and new foreign markets. The sampled respondents identified the main internal benefits from QA certification as the ability to retain existing markets; improved worker health and safety; better access to foreign markets; better farm organisation; and improved fruit safety and orchard management. The PCA identified six broad dimensions of these internal benefits. Comparing the motivator and perceived benefit dimensions, most of the motivators seem to have been in part realised by the respondents. Respondents rated shared goals and values about the product; more joint decision making on fruit safety; more working together on quality assurance; a better business working relationship; improved coordination; and improved trust as the six major supply chain benefits from QA certification. The two dimensions identified from these external benefits by PCA were: (1) Improved working relationship and product quality benefits, and (2) Improved cooperation and contractual benefits. The major costs of implementing EUREPGAP certification related to initial investment costs and the recurrent annual costs of compliance. The respondents, on average, spent an estimated R70655 on initial compliance costs, mainly for infrastructure, additional buildings and employees training. Some 60% of respondents spent less than 1% of annual farm turnover on initial compliance costs, while most of the respondents (84%) spent less than 1% of annual farm turnover on recurrent costs of compliance. Growers that owned a pack-house had statistically significantly higher initial and annual costs of compliance. Most (63%) of the respondents had a relatively high level of overall satisfaction with QA certification. The second objective of this study was to analyse the determinants of SA citrus farmers’ overall level of satisfaction with QA certification. Ordinary Least Squares (OLS) regression estimated that perceived dimensions of internal benefits, namely (1) Foreign market access benefits; (2) Intra-farm benefits; (3) Improved fruit safety and orchard management; (4) Quality and worker welfare benefits; and (5) Ability to retain existing markets, all had a statistically significant positive influence on the sampled growers’ overall level of satisfaction with QA certification. Supply chain benefits also had a positive effect on overall level of satisfaction, although the effects were not statistically significant. Similarly, no statistically significant relationship could be established between farm size or the respondents’ level of satisfaction with their certifying agents and their overall level of satisfaction with QA certification. Record keeping is required by nearly all EUREPGAP control chapters and for farm audits. Crop protection is also perceived as a complex requirement of the EUREPGAP protocol. Policymakers thus need to be aware of the extra costs that protocols create for management. The Citrus Growers’ Association of Southern Africa (CGA) could consider providing more extension advice to farmers on the technical requirements of certification (particularly best practices for implementing the control chapters). Comparing the motivator and perceived benefit dimensions, most of the motivators for QA certification seem to have been in part realised by the respondents. For instance, the drivers to improve business image/market competitiveness/market access requirements/farm profitability were realised via perceived reputation/input cost savings/foreign market and profit improvement benefits. The study results, therefore, provide some evidence that QA certification is a necessary strategy for maintaining competitiveness in EU citrus markets. / Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2010.