The thesis investigates the inorganic aerosol concentrations and wood smoke tracer potassium and levoglucosan concentrations in Birmingham, UK. Also a multi-wavelength aethalometer was utilized as a carbonaceous aerosol detector to directly measure the local wood smoke PM mass and traffic PM mass. To achieve this, daily PM2.5 inorganic ions sodium, ammonium, potassium, magnesium, calcium, chloride, nitrate, sulphate, and organic compound levoglucosan were measured over a period of more than one and half years at four sampling locations. There were: (1) Elms road, University of Birmingham; (2) North Kilworth Mill Observatory Site; (3) Churchill Pumping Station Site; and (4) Budbrooke, Warwick Sampling Site. Correlation analysis, regression analysis, and seasonal variation were examined for those inorganic and organic elements and compounds. The results were used to provide comprehensive spatial and temporal distributions, intra-site and inter-site comparison differentiations. Wood smoke potassium and levoglucosan were used as wood smoke tracer to determine the local resident wood smoke PM mass concentrations in this thesis. Budbrooke, Warwick Sampling Site for example, a mean value of 62ng m-3 wood smoke potassium was measured at winter periods but the mean value of only 17ng m-3 was measured during summer periods. This significant difference demonstrated a frequent wood smoke activity in this area during winter periods. Also a multi-wavelength aethalometer was used as wood smoke mass detector to measure the local resident wood smoke PM mass and local traffic PM mass concentrations. These three methods have their unique processes of acquiring the wood smoke mass concentrations, thus the results from these method have considerable variations. Therefore these three methods have inter-compared with each other to achieve better wood smoke concentrations results in order to obtain the best method of measuring local wood smoke mass.

PhoN-type acid phosphatase from an atypical Serratia sp. was applied to the removal of radionuclides from aqueous flows. In the presence of metal ions the phosphatase produces metal phosphate at the cell surface via the liberation of inorganic phosphate from a phosphate donor (glycerol-2-phosphate). Previous studies using biogenic hydrogen uranyl phosphate (HUP) on Serratia sp. removed \(^{60}\)Co, \(^{137}\)Cs and \(^�\)Sr via intercalative ion exchange into the HUP crystal lattice. Due to their non toxic and non radioactive nature, zirconium phosphates offer an alternative to HUP for the decontamination of potable water. Zirconium was successfully biomineralised by Serratia sp. forming gel-like deposits with little or no crystalline phases, as shown by XRD. This biogenic zirconium phosphate removed 100 % Co\(^{2+}\) and Sr\(^{2+}\) from solutions. Increased capacity can be achieved by co-crystallisation with Zr(IV) supplement assuming phosphatase radioresistance. The Serratia sp. phosphatase exists in two distinct isoforms (SP1 (radioresistant) and SP2 (radiosensitive)) which were purified and further characterised in this study. Both isoforms were found to have redox capability and were able to potentiate free radical damage to deoxyribose in a Fenton-type reaction. Analysis using highly sensitive Micro-Proton Induced X-ray Emission (PIXE) analysis found no metallic components in SP1 or SP2. Database interrogation using partial sequences of the phosphatase and the Basic Local Alignment Search Tool (BLAST) confirmed homology with PhoC and PhoN of several pathogenic bacterial species and also similarities with the vanadium haloperoxidases, indicating these phosphatases and peroxidases could have a common ancestor. The relatedness of the Serratia sp. PhoN to pathogenic species producing PhoN is discussed along with the possible role of phosphatase as both a scavenger of phosphate and in providing a defense mechanism for the pathogenic bacterial cell against the free radical-mediated immune response of the host.

This thesis set out to investigate the processes that determine the richness and composition of plant communities on derelict land in the West Midlands. Experimental work included vegetation surveys, soil seed bank investigation, field mapping and seed rain trapping methods. Interpretation of the data involved a range of approaches including vegetation classification and ordination, comparative analysis of plant functional attributes and the development of regression models incorporating landscape and habitat variables. Derelict habitats were identified as holding a diverse array of communities at the early stages of succession which are poorly represented by current vegetation classifications, functional diversity is however much lower in pioneer communities. The majority of these species employing the expected strategies of early succession notably high reproductive capacity and seeds which are small, highly dispersive and form persistent seed banks. Dense seed banks were typically formed on sites and were dominated by a small set of consistently occurring species. Changes in seed bank density and composition were consistent with time represented both by the chronosequence of sites and increasing soil depth. Little evidence was found to suggest that diversity or species composition is linked to site connectivity related to either patch density or the presence of linear features. These findings have considerable implications for application of principles of metapopulation and island biogeography principles to urban conservation. In particular the trend for planners to designate urban wildlife corridors is questioned as being probably of no benefit to native diversity and indeed these features are identified as being instead potentially significant pathways for invasive alien species. The most important factors influencing the composition of sites were seen to be those linked closely with past and present human activity. Particularly significant are the nature of dereliction substrates and haphazard disturbances such as fire and tipping which influence vegetation succession temporally and spatially.

The primary aim of this project is to investigate potential new materials for application in ion exchange processes to remove \(^9\)\(^0\)Sr from nuclear waste streams. This work can be broadly split in to two sections, work on attempts to synthesise new materials and work to investigate ion exchange properties of two recently prepared materials AV-7, a synthetic analogue of tin-kostylvite and AV-3, a synthetic analogue of petarasite. Synthesis on new materials was focused on metal silicate materials, in particular titanium, zirconium and tin silicates containing exchangeable group I and II cations. These synthesis attempts initially were focus on targeted mineral phases such as noonkanbahite, BaKNaTi\(_2\)(Si\(_4\)O\(_1\)\(_2\))O\(_2\), followed by a series of brief surveys examining the effects of various changes to precursor gels such as concentration of bases such as NaOH, metal to silicon ratios and the presence of mineralizing agents such as sodium fluoride. The synthesis of two synthetic mineral phases potentially interesting for ion exchange is also reported here, titanite and fresnoite. Ion exchange studies focused mainly on AV-7 and AV-3 but also included well known ion exchange materials for comparison such as clinoptilolite and Nb-doped crystalline silicotitanate and brief investigations in to the ion exchange of fresnoite and titanite. Ion exchange was followed using X-Ray fluorescence, ion chromatography and radioactive \(^8\)\(^5\)Sr exchanges measured using scintillation counters.

PBDEs were found in the raw sinter mix (RSM) used in iron ore sintering. Mass balance calculations after measurement of output samples (ESP dust, sinter product and stack emissions) revealed net reduction of PBDEs during sintering. After PBDD/Fs were detected in stack emissions, PBDEs and PBDD/Fs were investigated using a sinter pot (SP) - a laboratory scale version of the sintering process - under various conditions. Results suggested de novo synthesis of PBDD/Fs occurs within the process, but this was not caused by the PBDE content of RSM. The results from the SP ruled out PBDE formation within the sintering process. Measurement of PBDEs in UK air and soil demonstrated that whilst PBDEs appeared to have decreased since legislative use restrictions, their persistence is highlighted by their continued detection. PBDEs decreased in air and soil with distance from Birmingham City Centre, highlighting the higher density of PBDE sources in urban areas. Australian soils were less contaminated with PBDEs than the UK. Similar spatial patterns were found in both countries, with industry and urbanisation causing increased likelihood of elevated ∑PBDE concentrations primarily from Penta-BDE. Agricultural soil showed an influence of OctaBDE congeners. Sediment cores from Port Jackson, Australia demonstrated that PBDEs were still rising at the end of the 20th Century. Industry was highlighted as a source as cores from the industrialised western side of the harbour were more contaminated than that from the urban north-east.

Arctic streams are vulnerable to climate change due to the strong linkage between cryosphere, hydrology, physicochemical habitat and ecology. Our knowledge on how stream hydroecological dynamics will respond to climate change is largely based on the impact of the reduction in glacial extent in a warmer Arctic, however our knowledge of the response of Arctic streams with low glacial input are poorly understood. To address this knowledge gap, three field campaigns to Zackenberg (northeast Greenland) were carried out (2013 – 2015) to investigate snowmelt stream hydroecological patterns and processes. Streams were chosen that were sourced from both small and large snowpacks, representing low and high snowfall conditions. Streams with large snowpacks were found to have low channel stability and high suspended sediment concentration compared to streams with small snowpacks. Channel stability, rather than water temperature, was the most important factor influencing macroinvertebrate community dynamics, where streams with low channel stability had reduced macroinvertebrate density and taxa richness. The results of this research recommend new classifications to Arctic and alpine stream habitat types, and suggest that, as snowfall is predicted to increase in the Arctic, snowmelt-fed streams may experience decreased channel stability, and as such, a decline in macroinvertebrate density and diversity.

The urban heat island (UHI) effect is an inadvertent modification of climate which leads to increased temperatures in urban areas. This in turn increases localised demand for air conditioning and refrigeration which can be a significant drain on energy resources. At a time of increasing economic, political and environmental concerns with respect to energy policy, security, efficiency and climate change, there is a need to focus efforts to understand energy usage in cities for current and future climates. Using data from an Urban Meteorological Network (UMN) along with a critiqued degree days methodology, this thesis analyses the UHI and estimate current and future cooling demand in Birmingham-UK. From the results it was possible to identify that currently the main factor in energy consumption is income, however when isolating income influence through normalization process it is possible to identify the impact of the UHI. A significant finding was that the distribution of the surface UHI appears to be clearly linked to landuse, whereas for canopy UHI, advective processes appear to play an important role. Analysing Tair data available from the UMN the cooling demand for summer 2013 and future climate scenarios were calculated and demonstrated the importance of high resolution air temperature measurements in estimating electricity demand within urban areas.

In the recent years, social issues around renewable energy implementation have been gaining prominence both in developed and developing countries. Though researchers across different disciplines in developed countries have started dealing with this issue, there is a lack of theoretical or empirical research in developing countries. This research from a pluralistic perspective and using the case study of ‘Charanaka Solar Park’ qualitatively analyses the relationship between ‘justice’ and solar energy implementation in India. The justice framework used in this thesis corresponds to the theoretical knowledge on a) procedural justice and b) distributional justice principles based in social, environmental, and energy justice literatures. The application of multiple theories of justice proved to be significant and useful instrument for analysing controversies over implementation of solar (renewable) energy policies. The results of this research have provided new insights into how social justice issues, such as recognition of marginalised communities, equal and democratic participation, and just distribution of project outcomes, are strongly interconnected to implementation of ‘environmentally good’ projects. Following the findings of this research, recommendations for policymakers and practitioners are proposed and pathways for future research are outlined.

The effects of adjusting the initial carbon to nitrogen (C:N) ration and pH of pig manure and straw mixes on ammonia emissions and pathogen marker inactivation during composting were investigated by experimentation and modelling. Three, 210-litre reactors were designed and built to control conditions, such as the maximum operating temperature, minimise temperature gradients and enable analysis of the off-gas for ammonia, water, oxygen and carbon dioxide. Respirometry showed that the optimal temperature for composting pig manure was about 60°C. A simulation model suggested that ammonia emissions could be reduced by lowering the initial pH and increasing the initial C:N ratio of the organic material. Experimentally, lowering the initial pH significantly reduced ammonia emissions. The effect of the initial C:N ratio on ammonia emissions was not significant because of variations in the pig manure. Pathogen markers were sometimes detected after composting from experiments with low ammonia emissions, so questioning the established criteria for pathogen inactivation. Experimental data validated the model, which simulated organic material decomposition using first order reaction rate kinetics and predicted the temperature and ammonia emissions profiles from initial conditions.

Hydroecological relationships in alpine catchments are poorly understood. Glacial icemelt, snowmelt and groundwater sources each produce a distinctive suite of physico-chemical stream habitat characteristics in alpine streams. These spatially and temporally dynamic habitat conditions influence stream benthic community composition. An interdisciplinary approach (hydrology-hydrochemistry-ecology) was adopted to examine hydroecological responses to dynamic alpine water source contributions, involving development and testing of a new conceptual model of alpine stream habitat classification. Fieldwork was undertaken over two summer melt seasons (2002 and 2003) within the Taillon-Gabiétous catchment, French Pyrénées. Hydrochemical separation methods demonstrated differences in meltwater and groundwater contributions to streamflow both spatially and at diurnal, seasonal and inter-annual time-scales. Suspended sediment concentration was lowest when groundwater contributions to streamflow were dominant. Water column temperatures were lowest where snow and ice meltwaters dominated streamflow. Higher Si, Ca\(^2\)\(^+\) and HCO\(_3\)\(^-\) concentrations were found in groundwater sources. Benthic macroinvertebrate communities varied markedly throughout the summer melt season. Total macroinvertebrate abundance, number of macroinvertebrate taxa, number of EPT taxa, and community stability and persistence were higher when groundwater contributions dominated streamflow. Most taxa showed positive relationships with the proportion of groundwater but Rhyacophila were absent where the proportion was >0.5. Hydroecological patterns and processes in this alpine catchment are summarized in conceptual models to present key findings, and as a template for hydroecological research in other alpine glacierized basins.