This thesis presents the results of the analysis of the anthracological remains (charred fuel wood waste debris) retrieved from the archaeological sites of Pınarbaşı, Boncuklu, Can Hasan III, Çatalhöyük East and Çatalhöyük West, located in the Konya plain of south-central Anatolia, Turkey. Together, these sites span the time period between ~15-7.5 ka cal. BP. The main aims of the present study are: (a) to characterise the use of prehistoric woodlands in south-central Anatolia and its changes through time during this critical period for the development of settled life and early agricultural economies, (b) to investigate the nature and scale of woodland management activities and anthropogenic impacts on prehistoric woodland vegetation, and (c) to assess the representativeness of the anthracological assemblages for reconstructing the composition, structure, form and distribution of late Pleistocene and early to mid-Holocene woodland vegetation in south-central Anatolia, and its changing ecologies in relation to climate, woodland growth conditions and human impacts. Anthracological analyses focused on charcoal macro-remains retrieved from a range of primary (fire features) and secondary (middens, building infill, and general dispersed contexts) fuel wood waste deposits. The methodologies applied included the taphonomic assessment of charcoal densities, standard taxon frequency and ubiquity quantitative analyses, and the quantitative and qualitative analysis of wood calibre and the dendroecological features preserved in archaeological charcoal specimens. The results of these analyses were further explored through the application of a range of multivariate quantitative techniques. The same techniques were also used to integrate the results of anthracological analyses with dung fuel seed archaeobotanical and select hunted and herded faunal datasets, in order to evaluate their co-variation, and thus reconstruct the co-evolution of landscape practices and anthropogenic impacts across space and time. This thesis demonstrates the unique potential of anthracology to provide novel and highly original insights in the palaeoecology and palaeoeconomy of Southwest Asia, particularly with regard to the investigation of vegetation history, the origin and developments of early anthropogenic landscapes and the nature of people-environment interactions during the transition from foraging to farming.

Droughts are one of the most widespread and complex natural hazards, and remain poorly understood in the context of the United Kingdom. Although the UK is perceived as a relatively water rich country, droughts are a recurrent feature of its climate, causing widespread and serious environmental and economic impacts. Current understanding of drought risk is often based on relatively short records, and/or a small number of specific contemporary case study events from the last couple of decades (e.g. 1976). This study addresses this problem through the development of long (>150 year) meteorological drought records reconstructed using the self-calibrating Palmer Drought Severity Index (scPDSI). The index was calculated using long duration temperature and rainfall records. New rainfall series were generated for Carlisle and Chatsworth, existent rainfall series were extended for Kew, Spalding, Manchester, Edinburgh and Oxford. Additional rainfall series were kindly provided for Appleby and Durham. Temperature series for the Lancashire Plain, Oxford, Edinburgh and Durham were also extended. Where appropriate the newly developed and existing series were evaluated and tested to ensure homogeneity. The drought reconstructions identify multiple drought-rich periods, particularly in the eighteenth and twentieth centuries, with an increasing tendency towards more severe droughts during the latter period. Prolonged rainfall deficiencies are found to be the primary cause of severe droughts, with rising temperatures exacerbating the rainfall conditioned drought pattern. Cycles at the 6-10 year period identify a sub-decadal to decadal signal during the more drought-rich periods, which can be interpreted as reflecting large scale modes of climate variability. Analysis of the spatial variability of droughts finds that whilst severe events predominantly display spatial coherence, there are notable variations in drought characteristics (severity and duration) that reflect intra- and interregional variability in drought behaviour. In part this can be attributed to localised variations in rainfall and distance between sites. This study extends the temporal range of previous drought studies and places recent drought events in a longer context, improving upon existing ‘benchmark’ drought analyses; with far-reaching implications for local, national and continental scale reduction of drought vulnerability and risk.

There is increasing concern about the adverse effects of the road network on wildlife. The impacts of roads in the ecological landscape include habitat loss, habitat fragmentation and habitat degradation. These interrupt and modify natural processes, altering community structures and population dynamics. The large number of animal fatalities from road traffic accidents is also of concern. Only limited work has been carried out to investigate the intensity of these effects in the UK landscape. This study investigates the effects of roads on both small and large mammals and reviews mitigation measures that have been installed to ameliorate some of these effects. Roads of all sizes present a significant barrier to animal movement and they affect it in specific ways. Movement of small mammals is inhibited by lack of cover and the hostile road surface, whilst fragmentation of the road-verge by highway-related structures, impedes dispersal and compromises the benefits of connectivity often ascribed to such areas. Large animals, which use roads to travel through their territory, are more likely to be struck by traffic and are therefore, more directly affected by traffic-intensity. There is room for further mitigation to reduce the worst of the road-related impacts.

The species of Acaena (Rosaceae) growing on the sub-Antarctic island of South Georgia have been examined from two different aspects - the world level and the insular level. A revision of the taxonomy and synonymy of the two sections of the genus containing A.tenera and A.magellanica has resulted in the reduction to synonymy of many species, and a complete synonymyn for Sect. Acrobyssinoideae Bitt. and for A.magellanica (Lam.) Vahl (which comprises most of Sect. Ancistrum Bitt.) is provided. Morphological descriptions are given for A.magellanica and A.tenera, and for plants from South Georgia which are judged to be the hybrid A.magellanica x tenera. An examination of aspects of generic morphology together with consideration of relevant biogeographical literature has resulted in the conclusion that the genus probably arose from tropical ancestral stock which may have been common to Poterium. Speciation within South America has resulted in a spectrum of types, from primitive woody species with racemic inflorescences and multispined fruits to more highly evolved species with less woody stems, few spined fruits and compact globular heads. Dispersion of the genus from South America has taken place at various times, resulting in different stages of generic evolution. The majority of the Australasian species are found in New Zealand and appear to have a common ancestor. The relationships of other disjunct species were traced and relatively recent long distance dispersal was found to be a satisfactory explanation for most of their distributions. The taxa on South Georgia were shown to be highly evolved. The inter-relationships between them are given in terms of breeding patterns and it is suggested that F1, hybrids are normally formed with A.tenera as the female, whilst F2 and any subsequent generations are probably due to backcrossing to A.magellanica as the male. A.magellanica appears to be generally outcrossing whilst the reverse is true of A.tenera. Examination of floral development showed no evidence of preformation of flowers in the previous season, initiation occurring simultaneously with snow melt at most sites. The rate of floral development appeared to be linked to site aspect. Seed germination studies showed a warm day/cold night regime to be the most effective. A.magellanica seedlings grew at a much higher rate than those of A.tenera, but seedling production on a per head basis was similar for both species. Under a given light regime there was a linear rate of leaf production for both taxa. Rates for seedling establishment in various soils at different sites were seen to correspond to a pattern predictable from the general ecological data for the species. Measurement of changes in standing crop of an A.magellanica community showed it to be highly productive, although the tnojof part of dry matter production was for vegetative rather than flowering tissue. Initial measurements of photosynthetic rates demonstrated marked differences between geographically isolated populations of A.magellanica. A significant rate of photosynthesis was found to occur at and below 0°C. in all the South Georgian taxa. These data were discussed in terms of adaptation of the taxa to South Georgia and the other sub-Antarctic islands, whilst the information gathered on these and other species was used to propose a hypothesis for the origin, evolution and distribution of the genus.

This thesis develops a multi-scalar political ecology of biodiversity conservation on brownfield sites in Birmingham, U.K. While urban brownfield biodiversity is increasingly recognised as a valuable resource, political pressure to develop such spaces is also growing. Forty-five interviews were conducted with practitioners and policy makers, supported by genealogical and discursive analyses of a range of texts, to interrogate this tension. Common discourses structuring ecological, conservation and planning activities are traced across national and international levels, to contextualise the formulation and implementation of biodiversity action plans at the local level. Because urban landscapes are characterised by disequilibrium, planning policies and ecological models under-represent the worth of these spaces. The mediation of these discourses through local networks of actors engaged in the biodiversity action plan process is explored socially and geographically. A scalar political ecology of urban planning is developed through the consideration of wildlife corridors, and a case study of a specific brownfield site. The thesis offers an integrative analysis of socioecological transformation, and urban ecological governance. It is argued that while the BAP process has the potential to reconfigure urban geographies, it is currently sterile because such forms of sustainable governance contradict the dominant ‘scalar fix’ of capitalism.

Groundwater flow typically provides stable stream habitat within glacierised floodplains. However, spatio-temporal differences within and between groundwater flow pathways can create marked variability in the physicochemical characteristics of groundwater-fed streams. Research conducted on a floodplain terrace of the Toklat River, Denali National Park, Alaska, predominantly from May to September 2008, determined the influence of groundwater flow dynamics upon benthic and hyporheic macroinvertebrate assemblages. During periods of resource depletion benthic macroinvertebrate abundance was dependent upon contributions from specific flow pathways (DFSdeep), which supplied fine particulate organic matter. Dynamics of groundwater flow pathways influenced macroinvertebrates throughout the summer, however, with higher diversity observed in perennial streams which received groundwater flow from DFSdeep. Ephemeral flow pathways of glacial seepage supported lower diversity. Within the hyporheic zone, environmental stability of surface waters was influential, as this reflected the sub-surface residence time of percolating waters; nested routes of flow within each flow pathway, of varying length or permeability, created differences in the environmental stability of each stream. Macroinvertebrate diversity in the hyporheic zone was higher at sites of lower surface environmental stability, suggesting possible migration into the hyporheic zone. Digital remote sensing used to estimate the spatial extent of groundwater upwellings within two national parks in Alaska indicated that these groundwater-fed habitats are widespread.

The Lower Paleozoic rocks of North Wales are penetrated by numerous bodies of dolerite and intermediate-acid material which are closely associated with pillow basalts, acid and basic tuffs and ignimbrites. Igneous activity occurred throughout the Ordovician although in Snowdonia and Lleyn it reached a climax during the Caradoc stage. The present study has considered the granitoids of Snowdonia and Lleyn which are intruded as stocks, laccoliths and high level plugs (<5 km2) into clastic and volcaniclastic sediments. A substantial body of new chemical data has been obtained for over thirty intrusions. Twenty-four major and trace elements were determined on each sample by X-ray fluorescence techniques and the rare earth abundances of forty-five selected samples were measured using a radiochemical neutron activation procedure. Three distinctly different types of granitic material are recognised and their possible evolutionary mechanisms are discussed in detail. On the basis of the geochemistries of the various sampled intrusions it is concluded that they were all ultimately derived from the mantle by partial melting. One group originated from the remobilisation of calc-alkaline plutons formed by hydrous melting of the mantle wedge above a destructive plate margin. The other two groups, it is argued, evolved from tholeiitic basaltic magma by low-pressure fractional crystallisation. The goochemical affinity between some Caradocian andesitic material from Lleyn and the tonalitic-granitic intrusions of the same area has provided good evidence against a view that the latter were emplaced late in the Caledonian cycle (Silurian-Devonian). A paleo-tectonic reconstruction of the North Wales region is presented and it is claimed that the area evolved as a volcano-tectonic rift zone, a precursor of a back-arc basin.

Exposed Riverine Sediments (ERS) are highly dynamic habitats that support large numbers of rare and scarce invertebrates. ERS are characterised by a high diversity of microhabitats and microclimates. The thesis aimed to assess ERS habitats at a micro, patch and reach scale addressing three broad aims (1) to characterise the nature and dynamics of ERS microhabitat through investigating the thermal characteristics of ERS with respect to sediment calibre, depth and distance from the water‟s edge, and so identify the key factors that control variations in surface and subsurface physical habitat spatially and temporally. (2) Establish the physical drivers of invertebrate microspatial distribution (a) investigate the interaction of microhabitat (moisture and temperature) and food availability in determining invertebrate habitat selection, achieved through experimental habitat manipulation and the use of marked beetles. (b) Determining the microspatial distribution of specialist ERS beetles and spiders, and whether different species were significantly spatially aggregated/ separated from each other. Significant positive or negative association with physical ERS habitat characteristics. Identifying if species show a (3) Examine the spatial dynamics of beetle assemblages in relation to patch environmental variables and, assess population stability, persistence, occupancy and synchrony over time in relation to river flow. ERS microhabitats were found to be subject to strong lateral gradients in sediment, temperature and humidity that are amplified in hot dry weather. Specialist ERS beetles and spiders were found to occupy distinct habitats and showed clear spatial zonation in regard to sediment calibre, vegetation and elevation. Distribution of some species was highly variable and responsive to elevated levels humidity and temperature. Microclimate was found to have a greater influence over invertebrate distributions than food availability. The analysis of the long term data set provided evidence that larger and diverse ERS within sample reaches is associated with larger numbers of beetles of conservation value. Cattle trampling and stabilisation through vegetation were identified as having significant deleterious effects on ERS habitat quality. River flow variability, specifically the timing of high flow events was found to potentially have a negative influence on beetle abundance, population stability and persistence. Population synchrony revealed that the UKBAP beetle Perileptus areolatus exhibits little mobility and is highly resilient to inundation. However this makes it more susceptible to reach scale disturbance and a reduction in either habitat availability or quality.

Urban densification and a rise in human population call for greater investigation into how the urban-rural gradient can influence bees and their pollination services. This thesis aimed to further current knowledge by: (i) sampling bee assemblages along the urban-rural gradient in Birmingham, UK; (ii) increasing documentation of bee traits associated with pollen carryover; (iii) incorporating a trait-based analysis to bee assemblage change along the urban-rural gradient; (iv) testing whether the pollination services along the same gradient varied between land-use types and (v) investigating the provisioning and reproductive success of bees in the urban environment. This thesis supports previous evidence of species-specific variation by urbanisation and shows how trait composition and trait diversity are influenced by bee assemblage change along the urban-rural gradient. However, this recorded assemblage and trait variation appeared not to alter seed-set in Campanula glomerata between urban and rural areas. I also found that nutritional quality could play an important role in provisioning rate in the solitary bee \(Osmia\) \(bicornis\), with greater offspring produced in sites where more protein was found in provisioned pollen in urban areas. Furthermore, the inter-specific variation in pilosity (which could have an important role to play in pollen carryover and subsequent pollination) can be explained by body size and species’ pollen transport adaptation. From this work, I suggest trait based analysis could be a common framework for future studies to measure bee assemblage change between urban and rural areas. Moreover, this research builds on previous work which suggests that particular traits affect pollen transport and subsequent pollination, and that further detailed study could give clues as to how changing bee assemblages could influence pollination.

Urban water scoping modelling packages are used as tools to inform decision makers of the sustainability of different water management options for a city. Previous scoping models have not taken sufficient account of natural systems in the urban environment and are often limited in terms of the range of indicators used to measure sustainability and the choice of water management options offered. A new modelling package, named City Water Balance, has been developed to address these limitations. It has the capability to assess the sustainability of a variety of water management options, including the sustainable urban drainage systems, in terms of water flow, water quality, whole life cost and life cycle energy for alternative scenarios of future urban land use, population and climate. Application of the modelling package to the City of Birmingham has demonstrated that the modelled components can describe adequately the existing system, giving confidence that it can be used for scoping strategic options for future water supply and wastewater management. The further application of the package to model alternative scenarios through to 2055 for Birmingham has also been undertaken to illustrate its application. The results from the different analyses have shown that medium scale rainwater harvesting and borehole abstraction are predicted to be more sustainable than the conventional centralised supply and that medium scale wastewater recycling would be more cost effective but less energy efficient. The most sustainable strategy was installation of water efficient appliances as there is the potential for large energy savings from reduced indoor usage and consequent water heating requirements.