The strand of Nineteenth-Century Anarchism known as Anarchist-Communism conceived of the abolition of both state and market, and their replacement by a system of free distribution of goods organized through federated communes. While briefly this was the most developed and sophisticated strand of anarchism, it suffered an eclipse in the face of both the failure of the Russian Revolution, and the rise of the essentially a-theoretical industrial syndicalism that blossomed in many countries during the early decades of the twentieth century. With the expansion of the state and capitalism after WWII new forms of contestation appeared, most notably, in terms of Anarchist Communist theory, in the United States. In the 1960s and 1970s two currents emerged which represented the first significant development in anarchist communist theory for fifty years. These were the Social Ecology of Murray Bookchin, and a current which grew up around the Detroit underground paper Fifth Estate, later known as "Anarchist Primitivism". It is these two strands that are the subject of this research. Not surprisingly these two perspectives, appearing around a decade apart, and both in the same country, dealt with many of the same issues. What is more surprising is that in virtually every area, the conclusions they arrive at are completely different. In this research I locate these two strands historically as developments of Anarchist Communist theory, and examine their theories in four key areas: The Primitive, History, Reason and Rationality, and Technology. Examination of these areas serves to define the projects themselves, as well as highlighting how they disagree. To explain why they disagree, this work uses a methodological approach suggested Quentin Skinner. Skinner argued that in order to fully understand a text in the history of ideas, it is necessary to understand the author's intention in writing it. The study therefore examines not only the texts, but also the backgrounds of the writers concerned, their aims in producing it, and their approaches to debate with other theorists and perspectives. Through a combination of textual analysis and recovering the intentions of the writers, the high levels of disagreement can be accounted for.

This Thesis is concerned with multilevel and multi-sector forest governance in the Malaysian State of Sabah. It begins by amending the theory of vertical institutional interplay by applying constructivist and historical new institutional theoretical approaches, which contrasts with the more static theoretical foundations that have characterised study of this area to date. It then develops an analytical framework that uses policy frame analysis. This is designed to apply this new theoretical approach to the empirical context of Sabah. This framework analyses empirical subject through three stages. The first stage investigates the development of forest governance institutions at the global level and the state level within Sabah. The second stage then considers how the intersection of these developments, specifically focusing on role of ideas, discourse and agency, created the impetus for new policy initiatives in two local-level empirical examples. The third stage then considers the extent to which these initiatives were successful in institutionalising new forest conservation practices, or conversely how they were impeded by state level historical institutional continuities. The findings of this Thesis differentiate two forms of vertical institutional interplay. The first is the way global institutions affect state level ones where key actors mobilise ideas and discourses to in order to shift the direction of policy and initiate institutional change. The second is where the influence of global institutions is blocked by barriers created by long term historic institutional legacies that have shaped state level institutions. These findings show that vertical institutional interplay has initiated a partial shift in forest institutions and policy in Sabah. This shift varies between different locations according to the relative influence of these two forms of institutional interplay, and has created more dynamism and uncertainty in Sabah’s forest governance institutions. This Thesis contributes to existing literature through its ability to better conceptualise the role of vertical institutional interplay in a way that can account for the tension between the fixed and dynamic aspects of institutions. This contrasts to older approaches that have focused largely on the fixed aspects of institutions. The contribution is also demonstrated in the way this theoretical approach is able to better conceptualise fine grain variations in these dynamics at a local level of scale.

A new Spatial Decision Support System (SDSS) has been designed and developed to address a wide spectrum of semi-structured spatial decision problems. These problems are related to site selection, site ranking and impact assessment. The proposed SDSS is conceptualised as a holistic, informed and impact-based multicriteria decision framework. The system has been developed using the .NET C# programming language and open source geoinformatics technologies such as DotSpatial and SpatiaLite. A combination of existing Multi Criteria Decision Analysis (MCDA) and Artificial Intelligence (AI) techniques, with a few novel variations have been developed and incorporated into the SDSS. The site selection module utilises a theme-based Analytical Hierarchy Process (AHP) and Weighted Linear Combination (WLC). Two site ranking techniques have been introduced in this research. The first technique is based on the systematic neighbourhood comparison of sites with respect to key indicators. The second technique utilises multivariate ordering capability of the one-dimensional Self-Organizing Maps (SOM) to rank the sites. The site impact assessment module utilises a theme-based Rapid Impact Assessment Matrix (RIAM). A spatial variant of the General Regression Neural Networks (GRNN) with a genetic algorithm for optimisation has been developed for the prediction and regression analysis. A number of other spatial knowledge discovery and geovisual-analytics tools have been provided in the system to facilitate spatial decision making process. An application of the SDSS has been presented to investigate the potential of Coalbed Methane (CBM) development in Wales, UK. Most potential sites have been identified by utilising the site selection and site ranking tools of the developed SDSS. An impact assessment has been carried out on the best sites by using Rapid Impact Assessment Matrix. Further analysis has uncovered the spatial variability expected in the potential impacts of the sites, considering key indicators. The application has demonstrated that the developed system can help the decision makers in providing a balanced regime of social, environmental, public health and economic aspects into the decision making process for engineering interventions. The generic nature of the developed system has extended the concept of Spatial Decision Support System to address a range of spatial decision problems, thereby enhancing the effectiveness of the decision making process. The developed system can be considered as a useful modern governance tool, incorporating the key factors into decision making and providing optimal solutions for the critical questions related to energy security and economic future of the region.

Oil pipelines play a significant role in crude oil transportation and bring danger close to communities along their paths. Pipeline accidents happen every now and then due to factors ranging from operational cause to third party damage. In the Niger Delta pipeline system, interdiction is common; therefore, every length and breadth of land covered by a pipeline is vulnerable to oil pollution, which can pose a threat to land use. Weak enforcement of rights of way led to encroachment by farmers and human dwellings, thereby bringing people in close proximity to pipelines. Considering the impact exposure can have on human health, a method was developed for identifying vulnerable communities within a designated potential pipeline impact radius, and generic assessment criteria developed for assessing land use exposure. The GIS based model combines four weighted criteria layers, i.e. land cover, population, river and pipeline buffers in a multi-criteria decision making with analytical hierarchy process to develop an automated mapping tool designed to perform three distinct operations: firstly, to delineate pipeline hazard areas; secondly, establish potential pipeline impact radius; and thirdly, identify vulnerable communities in high consequence areas. The model was tested for sensitivity and found to be sensitive to river criterion; transferability on the other hand is limited to similar criteria variables. To understand spatial distribution of oil spills, 443 oil spill incidents were examined and found to tend towards cluster distribution. Meanwhile, the main causes of spills include production error (34.8%) and interdiction (31.6%); interdiction alone discharged about 61.4% of crude oil. This brings to light the significance of oil pipeline spills and the tendency to increase the risk of exposure. The generic assessment criteria were developed for three land uses using CLEA v 1.06 for aromatic (EC5-EC44) and aliphatic (EC5-EC44) fractions. The use of the model and screening criteria are embedded in a framework designed to stimulate public participation in pipeline management and pipeline hazard mitigation, which policy makers and regulators in the oil industry can find useful in pipeline hazard management and exposure mitigation.

In Britain, projected population rise and climate change threaten future water availability. UK water companies run education programmes to encourage more efficient usage, but these tend to focus on primary schools and adults, missing the opportunity to engage secondary school pupils as the next generation of homeowners and bill payers. Educational interventions also traditionally follow the theory of rational choice, envisaging learners as able to change their attitudes and behaviours in accordance with newly acquired information. Sociological research on social practices and ordinary consumption, however, sees water as playing an inconspicuous role in daily domestic activities. Technological infrastructure and prevalent social norms mould behaviour and limit the ability of water users to alter their consumption. This interdisciplinary thesis attempts to break the impasse between works from educational and sociological perspectives, using the theoretical lens of water citizenship. A review of current water education provision in the East Midlands region was undertaken, and a school-based study involving questionnaires, focus groups and exploratory lessons around water. The young people involved in the study tended to show ambivalence towards water conservation, despite general pro-environmental motivations. While some teenagers perceived they were ‘doing their bit’ for the environment, this tended to be limited to accepting and invoking ‘water saving tips’, and many teenagers eschewed water conservation altogether. These findings indicate that innovative educational programmes are needed to raise the standard of water literacy in the UK. This thesis argues firstly for making water use more ‘visible’ in daily activities, by deconstructing the routines and habits that use water, and by recognising the influences that social norms exert on water use. Secondly, it argues that educational initiatives for water literacy could develop young people’s sense of citizenship and responsibility towards water resources by connecting personal actions to impacts at local, national and global scales.

Understanding the transport behaviour of pollutants is key to enhance remediation strategies and to inform predictive models of pollutant behaviour in environmental and engineered systems. This work investigates magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) as a methodology for imaging heavy metal, molecular and nanoparticle transport in two different saturated porous systems: biofilms and saturated porous geologic media (gravel). While most renowned for its use in medicine, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is enabling us to image the transport of heavy metals, macro-molecules and nanoparticles inside biofilms and porous columns in real time. This is achieved using either ions which are paramagnetic (e.g. Cu2+) or molecules labelled with paramagnetic ions (e.g. Gd3+) or superparamagnetic (e.g. nanomagnetite) nanoparticles. Presence of these tracers causes a concentration dependent shortening of relaxation times (T1 or T2) of the surrounding 1H nuclei and thus creates noticeable changes in the MRI signal. Critically, this enables the transport of (super)paramagnetic ions, molecules or nanoparticles through the biofilm or porous geological media to be imaged. Moreover, the actual concentrations of molecules can be quantified, as changes in relaxation rates have a linear relationship with the concentration of the tracer molecules. Hence, MRI can be used not only to track but also to quantify the transport of (super)paramagnetic molecules inside biofilms and saturated porous columns. The key advantages of MRI over other techniques are its ability to image inside systems opaque to other methods and its ability to collect data non-invasively, hence the system is unperturbed by the analysis. In this study, the transport of Gd-DTPA, a commonly used MRI contrast agent, was successfully imaged through phototrophic biofilms of 10 and 2.5 mm thicknesses. To improve spatial resolution, for the 2.5 mm thickness biofilm, a bespoke 5 mm diameter RF coil was constructed. The comparison of spatially distributed, time-varying concentrations of Gd-DTPA inside the biofilms with diffusion models illustrated that transport was via both diffusion and advection. This work illustrated the potential of using paramagnetically labelled molecules to quantify molecular pollutant transport and fate in biofilms. MRI was also used to image heavy metal trasport in artificial biofilms (composed of agar and bacteria) to test the suitability of an existing adsorption-diffusion model to represent heavy metal transport and fate in biofilms. While the diffusion coefficients and adsorption constants estimated were appropriate, discrepancies between the model and the data illustrates models may need to be developed further to incorporate factors such as concentration dependant diffusion or cell lysis. Finally, the ability to image inside opaque systems was further exploited to image nanoparticle transport inside a coarse-grained packed column. This was undertaken to illustrate the potential for MRI to image nanoparticle pollutant transport in systems relevant to river beds and sustainable urban drainage systems (SUDS). MRI was successfully used to image the nanoparticle transport, with significant transport inhibition was observed in positively charged nanoparticles compared to negatively charged nanoparticles due to permanent attachment.

This PhD thesis seeks to consider conifer forestry stream corridor design in relation to both in-stream and riparian zone biodiversity and functioning. The contribution, availability and source of basal resources within varying corridor conditions are the focus of this project. This approach is combined with surveys of community diversity on a number of key trophic scales in order to determine how the corridor characteristics and their associated resource availability, affects community structure. The effects of varying design and management of the riparian buffer zones within afforested stream systems on in-stream and overall habitat diversity and functioning remains largely unknown. Although guidelines have been implemented for several years (Forest and Water Guidelines, Forestry Commission), recommendations, although based on sound assumptions, are subjective assessments and tend not based on scientific research or data. As such, the premise of this project is to consider a variety of corridor physical parameters adjacent to low-order streams within two afforested catchments in South-West Scotland, between 2003 and 2005, in order to contribute to the understanding of system functioning within the limitations of forestry land-use and management. A number of different approaches were employed in order to define the proportional contributions of allochthonous and autochthonous material within the benthos of the stream systems. This was done in order to define resource availability, biofilm characteristics, stream functioning and the role of corridor design in influencing resource availability. Yet, despite significant autochthonous productivity, allochthonous organic matter was the primary resource utilised by many taxa. However, conversely, light regime was found to be fundamental in shaping production and community structure within these ecosystems. Consequently, here I explore a number of different trophic scale responses to riparian conditions in order to define the biotic responses to variation of resource availability, with the aim of contributing information which may aid in design and management of afforested riparian zones.

Scotland is entering a transition period for its environment and economy as it decides which path to follow in meeting its energy and electric power needs over the coming decades. This thesis describes and evaluates several of the major dimensions which will contribute to those decisions and see welfare improvements for individuals and society in Scotland. Chapter One presents the current state of energy consumption in Scotland and provides technical details to understand the role of power generation. The dramatic need to plan replacement of aging power infrastructure is also documented. The United Kingdom’s international commitment to the European Union and the United nations for reducing green house gas emissions and how that commitment is shared around the world is reviewed. Finally, Scotland is compared to several European countries on the basis of government policies and attainment of renewable energy deployment. Chapter Two describes the current policy initiative in Scotland to use market mechanisms to incentivise the deployment of renewable power technologies. The operation and effectiveness of the Renewables Obligation (Scotland) program is described and analysed in depth. Chapter Three is a literature review of public perceptions, opinions and attitudes toward renewable energy. This chapter also presents evidence about the value of environmental changes that may occur with the deployment of renewable technologies. The environmental concerns examined are landscape, wildlife, and air pollution. Chapter Four presents a choice experiment to estimate the value of environmental changes and employment which may occur from renewable energy projects being built around Scotland. The household willingness-to-pay was estimated. Significant differences between urban and rural values were identified in regards to environmental impacts. Rural populations were found to value environmental impacts lower in exchange for the employment and economic development that would result locally from energy projects being built. Chapter Five discusses some of the controversial issues and technical problems with choice experiments. Chapter Six is a game theory model of interactions between small renewable energy producers and a large dominant traditional power producer. This chapter develops a model which better represents the actual behaviour and functional operating environment of the green certificate market. The model consists of two power producers producing an identical product (electricity); the dominant power producer uses only brown fuels and is required to purchase green certificates from the fringe green firm. The model attempts to find the policy and market equilibrium points for two firms trading two goods in two markets while minimising the cost to society of a green certificate program. The final chapter presents the major findings of this thesis and concludes by advocating policies which would address the goal of maximising social welfare from the deployment of renewable energy technology in Scotland.

Rising levels of persistent organic pollutants (POPs) in the environment have spurred governments around the world to engage in cooperative action on a global scale to control those chemicals that pose significant threats to human health and the environment. Political efforts to mitigate the risks posed by these chemicals are impeded by the technical complexity associated with POPs pollution, and are thus predicated on the scientific assessments of experts in fields such as chemistry and toxicology. Policymakers’ reliance on scientific expertise for guidance on risk assessment and management has reduced their control over policy and has given scientists authority to determine socially acceptable levels of risk, thus blurring the boundaries between science and politics. Conversely, the implications of science-based decision-making have increased the interest and involvement of political actors in a phase of evaluation that is often seen as objective, fact-based, and free of political interest. This thesis analyzes the ways in which various actors with scientific expertise – representatives of governments, industry, and environmental/public health NGOs – working under the auspices of the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants have used strategic issue framing tactics to promote predetermined policy agendas during the scientific review of chemicals proposed for regulation. This research breaks new ground by analyzing the ways elite decision-makers strategically frame issues in order to influence the policy preferences of other elites, and by evaluating the role of issue framing in the context of live policy negotiations. Key findings include the following: 1) the formation of epistemic communities of technical experts is precluded by political pressure on scientists to represent government/organizational interests, and 2) scientists strategically frame issues in ways that support the social, economic or political interests of the governments or organizations with which they are affiliated, thus contributing to the politicization of science-based decision-making.

Recent research has indicated that variability of antecedent flows is a fundamental control on the entrainment and transport of sediment in river systems. Specifically, the low flows between successive floods appear to have a far greater influence on the stability of a river bed than previously assumed. Increased durations of low flows increase sand-gravel bed stability so as to delay entrainment and significantly reduce transport. Although a degree of quantification of “memory stress” effects has been attempted by previous researchers, their applied methodology precludes development of appropriate mathematical relationships implicit to correcting existing sediment transport equations. The overall aim of this thesis is therefore to address this deficiency via robust physical and mathematical modelling. In total, 84 flume experiments were carried out in a flume. Two poorly sorted (g ≥1.6) sand-gravel mixtures of unimodal and bimodal distribution were compared and contrasted for sensitivity of modality to memory effects upon bedload and entrainment threshold. Five memory timescales (10, 30, 60, 120 and 240 minutes) were tested and contrasted with baseline data obtained for runs performed without any memory. Experiments employed a stepped discharge hydrograph covering sub-threshold to fully mobile conditions. A reference transport based approach was employed to determine entrainment threshold, and to develop mathematical descriptors of memory effects. Results show that increasing memory timescales up to 240 minutes increases entrainment thresholds ( ) by up to 49% whilst subsequent transport decreases by up to 97%. The memory effect prevails non-linearly for the range of low flows of non-dimensional transport between 10-6 to 10-1. Using these flume data, novel mathematical functions for bedload are developed to account for the influence of memory timescales. Here, memory is described via rising exponents of the function to quantify degree of non-linearity of transport to shear stress, and changes in the structure of the bed due to memory are represented within a lumped coefficient. Trends in the suite of exponents and coefficients indicate that changes in bed structure are of greater importance than the shift in non-linearity of bedload. Hence, the first framework for correcting existing graded sediment formulae for memory stress has been effectively developed using a scaling of the granular scale roughness parameter, An. Predicted results are calibrated and validated against available memory stress datasets from both field and laboratory based studies. Results show that without memory correction, over 80% of estimates fail to predict measured bedload effectively; once An based correction is applied, 100% of data are predicted effectively.