This thesis assesses seasonal hydrological prediction in Great Britain. Firstly, the study evaluates river flow prediction using climate model output to drive a rainfall-runoff model in the Dyfi basin, Wales. Results show that climate model precipitation can not skilfully simulate Dyfi discharge. When a downscaling process is employed to generate precipitation time series, river flow forecast skill improves, but historical river flows still provide superior forecasts. Secondly, large-scale climatic control on British precipitation/discharge and European precipitation is investigated by correlation analysis. Results show spatiotemporal hydroclimatological variation, with western regions generally having stronger empirical relationships. River flow has weaker associations because of basin controls and evapotranspiration. The dynamic nature of precipitation/discharge generating mechanisms is not captured by the North Atlantic Oscillation Index. Thirdly, seasonal climate model forecast skill is evaluated. Limited skill exists over land and over all extratropical regions for forecasts beyond month-1; precipitation has lower skill than 2-metre air temperature and mean sea level pressure. Seasonal climate models exhibit higher idealised predictive skill indicating potential for future increases in actual predictive skill. In conclusion, seasonal hydrological prediction using a climate-to-river modelling chain could be improved through consideration of the uncovered spatiotemporal hydroclimatological variability and through seasonal climate modelling improvements.

Both the fate and behaviour of the nanomaterials in the environment and their effects on the living organisms need to be better understood in order to maintain environmental health and ensure the sustainability of the important nanotechnology industry. This dissertation focused on the effects of gold nanoparticles on the Pseudomonas fluorescens bacteria, as a model of the planktonic bacterial biomass. Citrate capped and PVP Capped gold NPs were synthesized and characterised by measuring their relevant physicochemical properties such as size, shape, zeta potential, surface charge and stability in environmentally relevant ionic strength and in bacterial growth media. The citrate capped AuNPs of (14 nm core size) had no effect on the bacterial growth as no inhibition was recorded when compared with control samples, while similar concentration and comparable sizes of PVP capped gold NPs have affected the bacterial growth as manifested through the reduction of optical density and demonstrated by the TEM images in the form of membrane damage including blebbing formation, tubular structures on the surface of the membrane of the bacterial cells and, in severe cases, the complete bursting of bacterial cells. It was found out that gold ions inhibit completely the bacterial growth as shown by optical density measurements.

The chemistry of aerosol particles is critical to the influence said particles have over human health, air quality and the distribution of nutrients across the world. Current models estimate that windborne dust represents the movement of thousands of teragrams of solid material of varying composition and solubility across continents and into the world’s oceans. Understanding the composition and surface reactivity of anthropogenic particles from industry, agriculture and vehicle emissions is vital to understanding their potential impact on the world, and the structure and behaviour of inhalable pharmaceuticals is a strong determinant of their efficacy. The following work examines a broad selection of natural and anthropogenic particulate samples with synchrotron-based techniques, including analysis of ship emissions collected directly from stacks for the first time. The effect of simulated atmospheric acid processing on the solubility of iron on coal fly ash is evaluated, and optical trapping is used in conjunction with analytical techniques to observe the influence of relative humidity on the properties of pharmaceutical aerosols and aqueous droplets containing fluorescent protein solutions.

Northern Ireland Waterloo Mudstone Formation has received relatively little attention due to the scarcity of exposures and poor availability of subsurface records. The recent recovery of latest Triassic to Early Jurassic strata from boreholes permits further study of biostratigraphical and palaeoenvironmental using foraminifera and ostracods. The samples are from boreholes (Ballinlea-1, Magilligan and Carnduff-1) and exposures (White Park Bay, Tircrevan Burn, Larne, Ballygalley, Ballintoy and Kinbane Head). The age of the sections, established using foraminiferal biozonation ranges from latest Triassic (Rhaetian) to earliest Pliensbachian (JF9a). The assemblages recovered broadly similar to those elsewhere in NW Europe; European Boreal Atlantic Realm. The latest Rhaetian to earliest Sinemurian low diverse microfossil assemblages dominant by metacopid ostracods with occasional influx of opportunist foraminifera but gradually, foraminiferal abundances exceed the ostracods in the Early Sinemurian onwards with their highest diversity in the Late Sinemurian. The foraminiferal assemblages are dominated by foraminifera of the Lagenida, other groups include the Miliolida, Buliminida and Robertinida. Based on the microfossils, the sediments are considered to represent confined inner shelf environment in latest Rhaetian to Hettangian then gradually recovered to well-oxgenated, open marine deposits of outermost inner shelf to middle shelf in Early Sinemurian to Early Pliensbachian.

Highly ordered, stable and reproducible TIO\(_2\) NMs were synthesized using different precursors and alcohol mixtures. Various shapes of TIO\(_2\) including spherical NPs with shape factor of 0.9 or more, nanocubes, nanorods and ellipsoids were successfully fabricated. Spherical round anatase and rutile ellipsoids were selected and stabilized with different surfactants including PEG, PVP, sodium citrate and SRFA. Sodium citrate and SRFA proved to be the best stabilizing agents as compared to other surfactants used. The stabilized NMs were tested for their aggression kinetics in the presence of mono and divalent electrolytes (NaNO\(_3\), NaCl, CaN\(_2\)O\(_6\), CaCl\(_2\)). The aggregation kinetic studies showed that rutile ellipsoids behaved well against different mono and divalent cations. The CCC's observed for sodium citrate stabilized NMs were significantly higher than SRFA stabilized NMs, showing that sodium citrate is a better stabilizing agent than SRFA. The SRFA and sodium citrate stabilized NMs were studied for porous media column transport. The mobility of the rutile ellipsoids was greater than spherical anatase. Bare anatase NPs gave no breakthrough and the NPs clogged both the sandstone and glass bead columns; while bare rutile ellipsoids gave nearly 100% breakthrough curves. Only 40% or less NPs were released from sandstone columns. More release of NPs with SRFA flush is also important as it reflects the ultimate fate and behaviour of TiO\(_2\) NPs in natural environment which is rich in humic substances.

Mitigating maritime pollution linked to the oil and gas sector is increasingly seen as a priority issue in national and international contexts alike. A key policy tool that has been used to address this issue is Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA). It has become the primary means by which potentially adverse environmental impacts can be assessed and mitigated, and in theory, provides a variety of mechanisms for stakeholder engagement in the policy process. However, the governance of EIA in developing countries is embryonic, emergent, and in parts contradictory. This thesis reviews and evaluates EIA procedures as they relate to the Nigerian Maritime Oil and Gas Sector (NMOGS), relying, in particular, on Matland’s work on ambiguity and conflict in policy implementation. I argue that Matland’s scholarship affords valuable new insights into EIA implementation processes, particularly in terms of understanding the complex interactions among policy, business and civil society actors both within and beyond implementing agencies. Thus, the thesis’s broader contribution is to consider how the complex institutional mosaic sorrounding EIA might be conceptualised and understood theoretically by drawing on the rich literature on policy implementation. The empirical analysis utilises semi-structured face-to-face interviews with fifty-six respondents in key government implementing agencies, academia, and civil society. This is supplemented by secondary data on national level environmental policies, as well as surveys of EIA reports of multinational and national oil company projects in two Nigerian states. The thesis has demonstrated that the institutional context of NMOGS is characterised by high levels of interagency conflict and policy ambiguity. A key cause of the ambiguity is that two EIA systems operate in parallel at the national scale, thus making it difficult for the country to achieve its stated aim of attaining sustainable development in the domestic oil and gas sector. I have also found ample evidence of conflict over the roles, responsibilities and duties of Government actors across the whole spectrum of EIA implementation activities.

Natural aquatic colloids (solids with dimensions between 1 nm and 1 micron) were studied in cave waters that feed secondary carbonates [speleothems]. Results show that during hydrologically quiescent periods, trace metal (Tr) binding (e.g. Cu, Ni, Co) is dominated by humic-like, natural organic matter (NOM), with the smallest NOM-Tr complexes (≤1 to ca. 4 nm diameter) being the least labile at high pH (>pH 10). Partitioning of NOM:Tr between solution and crystal occurs minimally for the strongest complexes, providing a measure of NOM adsorption. Rapid fluxes of coarse (>100 nm) soil organic matter (SOM) and Tr in dripwaters often follow peak infiltration events, the coarse fraction of NOM quenching fluorescence in finer fractions (<100 nm). Termed ‘high-flux’ (HF), this mode of NOM-metal transport contrasts with the humic-like or ‘low-flux’ (LF) mode both hydrologically and chemically, resulting in shifts in trace metal ratios (e.g. Cu:Ni) which are characteristic of changes in the competitive binding of metals for suitable sites in NOM, and diagnostic of qualitative shifts in NOM composition (i.e. relatively more aromatic/hydrophobic). This process becomes manifest in speleothems, resulting in high- and low-flux trace metal end-members and providing information on NOM aromaticity. Changes in HF:LF metal ratios in speleothems are linked to processes in soils which are ultimately mediated by climate (i.e. ambient temperature and infiltrating precipitation); they may provide information on infiltrating precipitation, on the occurrence of surface disturbances (e.g. deforestation) and NOM composition. HF:LF indices complement the existing array of speleothem climate proxies, but each specific system and setting must be understood to ensure their proper interpretation.

The purpose of this thesis is to analyse the impacts of Climate Change policies on the Korean economy. Chapter two assesses initial emission allowance allocation methods in the Korean electricity market with a Mixed Complementarity Problem (MCP) model. Giving away free permits makes the emission reduction more expensive, but the extra capacity triggered by the free allowances to new entrants based on the fuel-specific benchmark raises social welfare when the industry is not competitive. Chapter three provides an integrated model that combines a macro-econometric model and a MCP electricity model. Dynamic linear logit model is employed to capture fuel substitution behaviours in the macro-econometric model. Chapter four analyses the effects of restructuring the energy tax and electricity pricing system when a carbon tax is introduced using the integrated model. Simulation results show that restructuring pre-existing energy taxes and the electricity pricing system can lessen the economic costs of CO2 emissions reduction, which implies that adjusting the energy pricing system to reflect social costs accurately is the way to reduce emissions more efficiently. However, gradual restructuring of the current electricity pricing system would be recommended in order to minimize the negative effect on the industrial competiveness in the Korean economy.

A future lack of available water may compromise the UK’s current energy policy to meet an increasing demand for electricity with more thermal generation. This research asks what impact a lack of available water will have on UK thermal generation by 2050 and aims to quantify this impact in terms of cost, generation technology, and cooling method. The UK’s future national water demand for nine electricity generation pathways was modelled. The regional water demand of one pathway; the Energy Technologies Institute’s ESME.MC pathway was then modelled. This identified how technology and cooling method combinations drive demand and regionally, where the increase in water demand is likely to be greatest. The ESME.MC pathway was modified to allow the cost and technology implications of a lack of water to be modelled. This research found that relying on freshwater alone will constrain the contribution of thermal generation by 2050 and increase the annual cost of the UK energy system by £12.5bn. Using sea and estuarine water is a feasible mitigation option but will result in environmental trade-offs. It is recommended that when considering these trade-offs the societal and economic benefits of a cost competitive electricity generation system is given due weight.

Meningitis and cholera have remained major health burden in Nigeria, especially in the heavily populated northwest region – which is identified as one of the “hotspots” of climate change. The strong sensitivity that both diseases exhibit to climate is raising concern that future anthropogenic climate change may exacerbate the occurrence of the diseases. This thesis aimed at modelling the influences of climate on the incidence of the selected diseases, and assessing their future risk in northwest Nigeria. The aim is achieved by first, investigating and understanding the spatial and time characteristics of both meteorological and diseases conditions in the region. This was followed by developing and validating suites of empirical statistical models capable of explaining and predicting both diseases. Models that are specifically designed for climate change studies were applied to estimate the future impact of climate change, by forcing them with simulations from an ensemble of statistically downscaled Atmosphere-ocean Global Climate Models (AOGCMs), for three different scenarios in the early and late 21st century. Results from developed models indicate the significant roles of both meteorological and socioeconomic factors on incidence of diseases. Evaluation of models developed with 1-month lagged explanatory variables suggest the potential to predict both diseases cases up to a month to aid decision making. Projection results suggest that future temperature increases due to climate change has the potential to significantly increase diseases cases in all scenarios and time slices. It is noteworthy that the projections result represents only the climatological potential for increased cases due to climate change, assuming that the present prevention strategies remain similar in the future.