The Cenozoic represents the transition from the greenhouse world of the Cretaceous to the ice house world of today. Nonetheless, it was not a steady linear trend from an ice free world to an ice house, and there were several reversals along the way. One such reversal was the Mid Miocene Climatic Optimum (MMCO, 14-17 Ma). Material from the Ocean Drilling Program Site 926 on Ceara Rise in the Equatorial Atlantic Ocean is used to examine two intervals within the MMCO from 16.4-15.9 Ma and 15.7-15.3 Ma. Stable isotopes and trace element ratios in two species of benthic foraminifera, Cibicidoides wuellerstorfi, and Oridorsalis umbonatus, and one planktonic foraminifer, Globigerinoides trilobus are used to reconstruct multiple climatological parameters at 2-4 kyr resolution. Paired Mg/Ca and δ18O measurements from the benthic species examined suggest that sea level varied by as much as 40m during the MMCO. Sea level variability was accompanied by changes in sea surface salinity, as measured using δ18O and Mg/Ca from G. trilobus, which suggests that the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) was responding to high-latitude forcing centred upon the Northern Hemisphere. The implication is that significant Northern Hemisphere ice sheets were present during the Middle Miocene, some 13 Ma before their currently held date of inception during the Pliocene. These changes in sea level were accompanied by large changes in benthic and planktonic carbonate saturation states (Δ[CO32-]), which are inferred to be representative of changes to global alkalinity and dissolved inorganic carbon. Changes in global export productivity, as evidenced by benthic foraminiferal accumulation rates and the planktonic-benthic gradient of δ13C, are inferred to be controlling the carbon cycle and atmospheric pCO2ATM during the MMCO. The ITCZ is also inferred to be controlling primary productivity at Ceara Rise. Additionally, the relationship between multiple trace element/Ca ratios and Δ[CO32-] are examined using core-tops taken from the Norwegian Sea. The relationship between Mg/Ca and Δ[CO32-] in C. wuellerstorfi is confirmed by expanding the available holothermal data. Mg/Ca in the benthic species Pyrgo murrhina appears to respond exclusively to changes in Δ[CO32-], and the relationship of U/Ca in P. murrhina to Δ[CO32-] is the opposite of that seen in C. wuellerstorfi and O. umbonatus.

The research aims to investigate the development of low/ zero carbon design training programmes for the purpose of disseminating the knowledge and skills of low/ zero carbon design to architects in practice in England and Wales. There are three stages: 1) Literature review This research starts with a review on low/ zero carbon design, architectural education, learning styles, and adult learning. The initial models of low/ zero carbon design and architects’ learning preference are developed to reflect the initial understanding of the research topic. 2) Case studies Three low/ zero carbon design training programmes are chosen as case studies with the acknowledgement of the limitations. The revised models are established with the feedback from the discussions and the survey results in the case studies to reflect architects’ current perspectives. 3) Questionnaire survey Based on the revised models, a nationwide questionnaire survey is conducted. Adding the survey results to the revised models, the final models are developed to inform the content and dissemination methods of low/ zero carbon design training programmes. The final model of low/ zero carbon design reflects the iterative process and the holistic approach to achieve low/ zero carbon goal, identifies that the knowledge and skills that architects require are associated with new active technologies, the updated Building Regulations and standard, and tasks in construction, hand over and close out stages, and reveals the importance to raise architects’ awareness of the importance of waste management, the legislation and regulations, and cost and value. The final model of architects’ learning preference points out the importance of workplace follow-up sessions, indicates that architects prefer different learning styles and share the characteristics of adult learning except wanting to be involved in the planning of the future training programmes, and supports that presentational styles influence the knowledge transfer processes for architects.

Methods were developed to quantify variation in gill size and microstructure and applied to three fish species: brown trout, Arctic charr and common carp. Measurements of arch length, number and length of gill rakers, number and length of gill filaments and number, length and spacing of the lamellae were taken for each gill arch and combined by principal component analyses to give length-independent scores of gill size. Levels of fluctuating asymmetry in gill arch length were also examined. Buccal and gill cavity volumes were measured from silicon moulds. Standard histological methods were used to examine gill microstructure. Benthic-feeding charr from a sample collected in Loch Awe, Scotland had relatively larger heads and buccal cavities than did sympatric pelagic-feeding fish Allowing for body size, they also had a more extensive respiratory surface, perhaps reflecting exposure to poorly oxygenated water while feeding on the loch bottom and/or a more active life style. Levels of asymmetry in gill arch length were higher in the pelagic-feeding form, which grow faster than the benthic-feeding form (Chapter 2). Gill size and structure were compared in carp (Chapter 3) and trout (Chapter 4) classified by a standard test as having proactive, reactive or intermediate stress copping styles. Proactive carp and trout had more extensive respiratory surfaces and lower levels of hyperplasia than did reactive fish, intermediate fish lying in between. The opposite was the case for density of mucous cells, which was highest in reactive fish and lowest in proactive ones. These data suggest that maintaining a large respiratory surface may represent an unrecognised cost of a proactive coping style. Common carp were held in mixed groups of proactive and reactive fish in one of 6 combinations of temperature (20oC and 25oC) and dissolved oxygen (3-4, 5-6 and 7-8 mg O2 L-¹) for 10 weeks. At the higher temperature fish had relatively larger heads and longer secondary lamellae, but had fewer mucous cells and a lower percentage of hyperplasia. At the lowest oxygen levels fish had relatively larger heads and a higher degree of hyperplasia than those held in normoxic and hyperoxic conditions. These results suggest that, over weeks, carp are able to “remodel” their respiratory structures in response to their current oxygen requirements. Few clear differences in response were found between proactive and reactive fish (Chapter 5). In semi-extensively farmed carp sampled over their final production year. Shortterm, acute husbandry stressors (grading and crowding) produced striking changes in several potential welfare indicators, including reduced body condition, increased in plasma glucose, lactate and cortisol levels and higher level of body damage. Percentage hyperplasia and secondary lamella number and length also increased. Long-term acute stress (pre-harvest crowding in concrete tanks) was associated with increased levels of skin and fin damage and in hyperplasia and mucus cell number, reflecting high stress levels and/or poor water quality. Glucose, lactate and cortisol levels fell, suggesting either habituation to current conditions or differential mortality by physiological stress status (Chapter 6). The results of Chapters 2-6 are synthesised in a general discussion (Chapter 7) and considered in the context of the existing literature on trophic polymorphism, on stress coping strategies, on the effects of environmental conditions of the welfare of cultured fish and on how gill structure and microstructure relate to other indicators of welfare.

The concept of uncertainty plays a significant role in higher education in the 21st century. However; the pedagogy of uncertainty tends to focus on ontology and the feelings of uncertainty experienced by teachers and students, as opposed to treating it as an epistemological concept. This research considers the epistemology of uncertainty in the context of climate change and investigates how it is conceptualised and taught by academics working in the subject area. The theoretical frameworks of troublesome knowledge and threshold concepts are employed to aid the characterisation of uncertainty as a concept in higher education. Following a methodology based on grounded theory, interviews were undertaken with 10 academics involved in teaching climate change. The interview data was analysed and categorised according to the interview participants' conceptions of uncertainty and the implications for teaching uncertainty. The research found that uncertainty in the context of climate change is a complex and multivariate concept and this was reflected in the interview data, with many of the participants holding several different conceptions of uncertainty simultaneously. In terms of teaching uncertainty, the concept also aligns with the theoretical frameworks, in that it is troublesome knowledge and a threshold concept in the context of climate change, with broader implications as an interdisciplinary threshold concept arising from the difficulty encountered when attempting to integrate diverse conceptions of uncertainty. Maturity and personal development were also found to play a role in teaching uncertainty. Several strategies and approaches to teaching uncertainty are discussed, and a critical reflection on the pedagogy of uncertainty is offered. The critical reflection proposes a pedagogy for teaching uncertainty whereby the concept is situated centrally in the higher education curriculum and taught explicitly through student-centred approaches that take into account issues of personal development and variation.

The impact of human disturbance on fungal flora around Davis Station and the Vestfold Hills in Antarctica (68 0 35'S 77" 58'E) was examined by monitoring air spora and soil fungi over a 12 month period in 2001. A number of fixed sample points were established around Davis Station from which soil was collected on a monthly basis as conditions allowed. Additionally, two transects were set up. The first transect ran 3km through the station from north to south extending from 50m beyond the limit of the station buildings, to the south of Heidemann Bay. The second transect extended 18km west to east along the length of the Ellis Fjord and Lake Druzhby as far as Trajer Ridge, 5km from the polar plateau. Each transect comprised 5 sites which were sampled on a fortnightly basis throughout 2001 using rotorod airborne particle samplers and soil dilution plates. Numbers of airborne particles were determined by counting under a light microscope. Fungi were isolated from soil using full strength potato dextrose and Czapek Dox agars as well as hair bait. Fungal isolates were identified on the basis of their general morphology and also by genetic analysis of ribosomal Intemal Transcribed Spacer regions. Fungal populations were sparse at all locations with the exception of the living quarters where numbers were consistently high. Furthermore, although seasonal variations were observed at many of the sites, no such variation was recorded at the station which would indicate a continuing source of inocula or less harsh conditions. Increased fungal numbers near to living quarters was also observed at other stations (Law Base, Australian, Progress II, Russian and Zhong Shan, Chinese) but not beyond their confines. Also, there was little species overlap between fungi found close to station living quarters and those found farther afield, which would indicate that whilst there was a clear human impact, the fungi associated with these areas do not appear to be becoming established elsewhere. Study of the optimum growth temperatures of fungi isolated from both soil and air showed that all isolates were psychrotrophs (i.e. were able to tolerate temperatures below 5°C) and 39% of them were psychrophiles (i.e. their optimum growth temperature was 15°C or below and they were able to grow at O°C). All genera were capable of surviving periods of at least 28 days of desiccation.

The thesis consists of three chapters of self-contained studies. In Chapter 1, I examine the decision of individuals to secure the provision of an environmental service under a Psychological Games framework. Since environmental services are considered public goods, there is an ongoing depletion of natural resources. While standard economic theory predicts the introduction of a PES is supposed to correct the associated externality by establishing a market which offers a monetary compensation to owners of vital natural resources as a recognition of their effort in providing the environmental services, this chapter argues such intervention might backfire: a motivation crowding-out arises if individuals believe others reciprocate friendly behaviour solely to receive the monetary compensation, ultimately decreasing total environmental protection. Even if environmental protection does take place, the motivation of individuals to secure the provision of the environmental service becomes commodified by the PES. Finally, awarding the PES only to a subset of individuals will also have negative effects on environmental protection, since those not receiving the PES will not want to do for free something that others are being paid to do. Environmental policy implications of this economic instrument are further discussed. In Chapter 2, a sample of the World Values Survey dataset is analyzed to show there are substantial behavioural differences between immigrants and native-born regarding pro-environmental action. In particular, while neither native-born nor immigrants are more willing to sacrifice money to save the environment, immigrants actually engage more on activities like choosing products that are better for the environment, recycling, and reducing water consumption. The engagement in proenvironmental behaviour of immigrants is region-specific and depends on their source region. Moreover, such relatively higher actual engagement in environmentally friendly behaviours can be explained by their high socio-economic status and their high education level, i.e. “selective immigration”. When the behaviour of immigrants by their length of residence in the host country is analyzed, no differences in proenvironmental attitudes or pro-environmental behaviour are found, a result which suggests they do not develop a “sense of belongingness” to the host country. Finally, in line with the standard finding in the literature of acculturation in environmental behaviour, this chapter finds that immigrants conform through time to some of the proenvironmental actions of native-born. In Chapter 3, I investigate the indirect effects on norm activation produced by monetary environmental policy instruments which introduce a situational cue that fosters a change of identity among individuals with potential negative consequences on their pro-environmental behaviour. For that purpose, a two-period identity selection model based on self-verification theory is developed. In each period there are two types of selves an individual can adopt: selfish and pro-environmental. The process of identity selection is driven by the desire of individuals to be consistent across the two periods in order to avoid social disapproval due to self-change. Results show that the monetary environmental policy introduces an asymmetry in the identity selection process that produces a failure of norm activation: while selfish agents preserve their selfish identity after the policy is implemented, pro-environmental agents might change their identity despite they experience social disapproval due to a reduction in the cognitive benefits of keeping such identity produced by the monetary component of the policy. Implications for environmental policy design are discussed.

This project investigated the traditional treatment of chromium by oxidation-reduction reaction using Fe (II) and Mn (II). It was found that FE (II) was a potential remediation to stabilise chromium and reduce Cr (VI) to Cr (III), but Mn (II) oxidised Cr (III) to Cr (VI) mobilising it to the leachate. The characteristic of chromium leaching from soil was studied and showed there was fast release followed by a slow release. After a dry period the initial leachate had a high chromium concentration, this points out that the leaching of chromium is a long-term process. Those aspects of fast and slow release and the high chromium concentration at the initial pulse have been a concern for designing a system of fixed bed, low cost material such as (charcoal, coir, peat and wood bark) for adsorbing chromium from the leachate. The adsorption – desorption properties were studied, as both are of equal concern, and the Langmuir equation was applied for the various sorbent materials. Charcoal had a high percentage of Cr (VI) adsorbed, but on the other hand also had a high percentage of Cr (VI) desorbed. When applied to the column leach charcoal could not adsorb Cr (VI) properly. Wood bark had the lowest percentage of chromium released to the solution; therefore it was selected for further studies. The wood bark was studied with different contact times by both batch and flow through systems. The results showed that more chromium was adsorbed with longer contact time. The system using 2500g of wood bard completely retained chromium from a solution of about 100 litres of 30 mg Cr/l with a flow rate of 60 ml/h. The experimental results can be applied to larger scale systems; however, the system needs further development.

Shellfish processing results in the disposal of large quantities of waste to landfill sites. This project sought to deal with the issue of the processing of marine crustacean waste, specifically that of the prawn, Nephrops norvegicus. The exoskeleton of Nephrops norvegicus contains chitin, β-(1→4)-N-acetyl-D-glucosamine. In this study shell waste was demineralised, via lactic acid fermentation, using a commercial silage inoculant. The product contained 11.2% (w/w) ash, 31.1% (w/w) protein and 53.5% (w/w) chitin. Addition of the proteolytic enzyme, bromelain and a nitrogen source to the fermentation system led to deproteinisation and further demineralisation of the shell. The final product contained 4.2% (w/w) ash, 5.3% (w/w) protein and 79.6% (w/w) chitin. Chitin is relatively inert but can be converted to its more reactive derivative, chitosan, by deacetylation. Chitosan, prepared from bioprocessed shell waste, was investigated as a potential coating for urinary catheters. Attempts are currently being made to prevent blockage of these biomedical devices due to mineral ions, via the use of different manufacturing materials. Shell waste that had been demineralised using lactic acid fermentation was deacetylated using 50% (w/v) NaOH at 90oC. Membranes were prepared from the resultant chitosan. After immersion in a bath containing artificial urine, adherence of calcium and magnesium ions to the membranes was measured and compared with adherence of the same ions to polyurethane membranes. Adherence of calcium to the chitosan membranes was not higher than adherence to the polyurethane control membranes. Adherence of magnesium ions was significantly less than to the polyurethane control. The chitosan was hence shown to have potential for use as a coating for urinary catheters.

The appropriate management of visitors to nature reserves is an important conservation concern. In this thesis I briefly review the current literature describing the effects of disturbance on wildlife, concentrating mainly on birds (Chapter 1). Recent literature has provided worrying critiques of the practical and theoretical bases upon which management practice is based. Here, I address a number of questions that seek to clarify the impacts of human disturbance on birds. I started by asking whether behavioural measures of disturbance are accurate indices of the negative effects of disturbance. Through an experimental test of a theoretical model, I showed that animals that respond most to disturbance may in fact be those individuals that face the lowest cost associated with such disturbance (Chapter 2). Turnstones Arenaria interpres provided with extra food over three days showed stronger behavioural responses to a standardised disturbance stimulus than those without extra food. Behavioural measures are therefore not always a good index of disturbance effects. Consequently, the conclusions of some of the studies reviewed in Chapter 1 must be considered doubtful. Although some large declines in breeding success of some species are caused by human disturbance, such effects are obvious, simple to remedy and appear to be rather rare. If human disturbance is a general concern it is therefore necessary to assess whether human disturbance has impacts on species that are not obviously sensitive. To investigate this, I modelled the impact of human disturbance on the nesting success of kittiwakes Rissa tridactyla and guillemots Uria aalge (Chapter 3). By directly measuring a range of nest site parameters as well as those parameters involving human disturbance, I was able to improve the power of the analysis to detect disturbance effects over those of previous, less detailed, studies.

Chapter two investigates the adsorption of chlorpropham on six different absorbents including three soil types; the adsorption-desorption of chlorpropham from soil including the development of an analytical method suitable for the analysis of chlorpropham residues in drinking water. The analytical method involved preconcentration of chlorpropham residues on a solid sorbent (C18) followed by elution with a suitable solvent to achieve an environmentally safe and sensitive method for the detection and quantification of chlorpropham. Octaedecyl silylbonded silica cartridges (C18) proved to be very efficient for the determination of chlorpropham residues with a high recovery and reproducibility of 97%. The adsorption study of chlorpropham was carried out on six different adsorbents including three soil types in an effort to find out their efficacy for the purification of chlorpropham polluted water. The studies were carried out using three types of soils - Downholland (peat), Midelney (clay), and Dreghorn (sand) - and charcoal, bark, wheat straw, at three different temperatures and concentrations. The results showed generally, that charcoal had the greater adsorption efficacy followed by tree bark, wheat straw, Downholland (peat), Midelney (clay), and Dreghorn (sand) soil under all investigated temperatures and concentrations. The desorption study was carried out to determine the extent of reversibility of the adsorption process for all the adsorbents under the same conditions of temperatures and concentrations. The results of the assessment indicated that desorption, in general, was more at higher temperature for all the studied adsorbents. However, for charcoal, adsorption was irreversible except at zero time at higher concentrations. For Downholland (peat), Midelney (clay) and tree bark, there was zero desorption at lower concentration levels.