Paired kitchen-living room dust samples from 30 UK houses were collected for the analysis of BFRs, including PBDEs, HBCDDs and PBEB, EH-TBB, BTBPE, BEH-TEBP, DBDPE. Ninety-six plastic kitchen utensils were collected, screened for Br concentration by X-ray fluorescence spectrometer, with 30 of these samples analysed for BFR concentrations. A simulated cooking experiment was conducted to evaluate BFR exposure. Temporal and geographical differences in concentrations of BFRs in indoor dust samples were investigated via comparing BFR concentrations in UK samples in 2006-07 and 2015 and comparing 116 indoor house dust samples collected between 2014-15 from 6 countries (Finland, Greece, Spain, Jordan, US and Mexico) respectively. Concentrations of BDE-209 in living room dust were significantly lower and those of DBDPE significantly higher (p < 0.05) compared to concentrations in 2006-07 in UK dust. All target BFRs were present at higher concentrations in living rooms than kitchens. Considerable BFR transfer from kitchen utensils to cooking oils was observed and estimated exposure via cooking was 60 ng/day. US dust showed the highest Penta-BDE concentrations, followed by Mexico. Jordanian dust samples contained the highest concentrations of Octa-BDE. US and Mexican samples were found to display a similar composition to that found in the FireMaster® 550 formulation (EH-TBB:BEH-TEBP=4:1).

Virtually all temperate insects overwinter in diapause, a pre-emptive response to adverse environmental conditions and for many species a pre-requisite of winter survival. Increased global temperatures have the potential to disrupt the induction and maintenance of diapause. In the first part of this thesis, a four year phenological study of the blow fly, \(Calliphora\) \(vicina\), identifies that diapause is already being delayed due to high temperatures experienced by larvae within the soil layer. Laboratory studies identified that non-diapause life stages are capable of heightening cold tolerance through a rapid cold hardening ability, and winter acclimated adults maintain locomotion at lower temperatures than summer acclimated adults. A previously unrecognised threat, however, is that higher adult temperatures have the transgenerational effect of reducing the cold tolerance of diapausing progeny. In the second part of this thesis, the relationship between diapause and cold hardiness was investigated. The amino acid, alanine, was up-regulated as part of the diapause programme. Non-diapause larvae developed on an alanine augmented-diet expressed cold tolerance phenotypes similar to those of their diapausing counterparts. This adds to a growing body of evidence to suggest that amino acids have a direct role in insect cold tolerance.

There is growing public awareness regarding the risk associated with poor indoor air quality (Ward, Underberg et al. 2009) and indoors like in the home and workplace (Bernstein, Alexis et al. 2008). The aim of the study is to measure the magnitude of concentration in indoor environments, and personal levels of some air pollutants such as volatile organic compounds, PM2 s, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, oxy-PAHs and Black carbon. Estimate the mass of BC that might be in the breathing zone and the lung dose. To conduct the personal exposure and home and workplace measurements, 45 healthy, non-smoking adult volunteer subjects were recruited. Concentration of the compounds might vary across volunteer's activities, therefore the importance of having personal exposure data which might be more representative. To accurately assess the human exposure and the human risk associates with the air pollution. New or recently remodeled building were found to have high concentration of VOC, therefore, a decay time should be considered before to move into a new buildings. BC particle size concentrations need to be investigate deeply as few information is available. Moreover not information about BC deposited dose was found.

Processes controlling the transport of dissolved-phase organic solutes through clay aquitards have been investigated. The study was centred upon a former UK industrial facility at which dissolved-phase aromatic solutes contaminated, and in areas penetrated, a discrete clay bed underlying the site. The lacustrine clay stratum (1-2 m thick) at 6 m bgs located in a sand aquifer was cored in 13 locations and intensively sampled with depth (primarily benzene, ethylbenzene, toluene and styrene). Two types of hydrocarbon invasion profiles were identified; (i) diffusion-based invasion and (ii) advection-dominated invasion. The latter has been shown from extensive physicochemical analysis of the clay cores in the laboratory to be primarily through connected “palaeo-root” holes. Root connectivity has been shown at various scales (serial sectioning, x-ray tomography). The hydraulic conductivity in the case of the advection-based profiles was ~0.04 m/d, whereas in the case of the diffusion-based profiles it was much lower at approximately 3 x 10-5 m/d. Sorption characteristics of the clay have been investigated yielding Kd over 2.98 – 6.95 l/kg and Kf over 2.27- 6.89 μgkg-1/ μgl-1 for PCE and Kd over 0.49 l/kg and Kf over 0.57 μgkg-1/ μgl-1 for benzene. Freundlich isotherms over 3-4 orders of magnitude concentration were found to be near-linear, a phenomenon likely attributed to the occurrence of modern organic matter within the sediments. A 2-D (Fractran) numerical model confirmed that where the clay deposits are homogeneous or contain partially penetrating root holes, slow diffusion dominated invasion will offer significant protection to the lower aquifer with breakthrough times through 1 m of clay of 40 years. Conversely, where the clays contain fully penetrating root holes, advection through the root holes causes much faster contaminant penetration. Matrix diffusion from preferential flowpaths causes contaminant to become distributed completely through the clay stratum. Discharge from the bottom of the clay stratum through root holes will be associated with a significant flux of dissolved-phase contaminant (where 30% of clay is rooted with 7.5 cm spaced root holes, ~0.25 mm aperture, contaminant flux is 0.134 g/m2/d) causing contamination of the lower aquifer. The accumulation of mass in the clay stratum is likely to cause prolonged contamination of the adjacent aquifers should the original source concentrations decrease. Indeed, evidence for such reverse diffusion at this site has been observed in one of the profiles. A 3-D code using high resolution data from x-ray tomography was developed to enable modelling of contaminant transport in finely characterised root holes.

Cities have tended to be treated by ecologists as essentially physical entities unconnected to the concerns of historical geographers. In contrast, urban morphologists have tended to focus on how urban physical expressions of culture have changed over time: such an approach has stimulated research on the characteristics and planning of the form of cities that has been largely divorced from concerns about ecosystem services. This is somewhat paradoxical in light of the significant areas of most cities that are vegetated and the increasing evidence of the value to society of these green spaces. This thesis examines the connection between urban morphological research on the fringe-belt concept, as developed by M. R. G. Conzen and others, and the character and distribution within cities of major areas of green space. The principal focus is on how green spaces within fringe belts that are embedded within cities (for example, parks, allotment gardens, golf courses, and land attached to educational and medical institutions) have changed over time, especially during the past 100 years. Detailed studies of fringe-belt sites in Birmingham reveal a decline in green space over time but maturation of surviving green space towards mature wood-grassland. Comparisons are made with residential areas.

The reliance on firewood leads people to be affected by indoor air pollution, which has negative impact on human health. Hence, a reduction on households using traditional fuels, through providing cleaner fuels, is imperative. Indonesia was before 2007 one of the Asian countries with a high proportion of people relying on traditional energy for cooking. However, in 2007, the government of Indonesia aimed to increase the usage of LPG for cooking through the Energy Conversion Program from Kerosene to LPG (ECPKL) policy. The aim of this study is to investigate the impact of the policy on the development of access to modern energy between 2007 and 2011. Data from Statistics Indonesia and interviews with government and members of the public were collected. The statistical data was obtained to analyse the broader pattern of use of modern energy and traditional fuel in Indonesia over 2007-2011. Thematic maps of fuel use were produced and analysed in Geographical Information Systems (GIS). The effect of the policy on the change of fuel use in Indonesia was investigated through non-parametric statistical analyses. The effects of household income and rural-urban location on change in fuel use were also investigated. Interviews with central government and local government were conducted to identify the role of government in ECPKL policy and their aims in instigating the change in fuel use from kerosene to LPG. Interviews with members of society were also conducted to investigate societal acceptance of LPG and the factors that influence willingness or reluctance to use LPG. Results of the study show that, in terms of quantity of energy, share of expenditure and source of energy measures, the number of households using firewood in Indonesia from 2007 to 2011 was reduced. In 2011, more households had access to LPG in comparison to 2007, and households using kerosene in 2011 were in smaller number than those in 2007. This indicates that the implementation of policy to replace kerosene with LPG had achieved the target of improving LPG use and reducing kerosene on one hand and only had a small influence on the reduction of traditional fuel for cooking use on the other hand, because there was no attempt from the government through the ECPKL to reduce firewood and other traditional fuel use. It was also found that injustice in the distribution of cleaner fuel for cooking use in Indonesia was apparent, but it reduced from 2007 to 2011. Similarly, the policy implementation led to a reduction in the difference between rural and urban areas in proportions of modern and traditional users, between 2007 and 2011. Interview analysis revealed that there are three levels of adoption of LPG, i.e. full adopters, partial adopters and non-adopters. The factors affecting adoption of LPG include price and the market for LPG and kerosene; trust; the tangible and intangible characteristics of appliances; the campaign for LPG by family and neighbours, and kitchen architecture. Some people decided not to adopt LPG and continued to rely on firewood. There are four main factors that were connected with continuing firewood use: behaviour and life style, economic reasons, being elderly in a rural area, and living in a location that had plentiful firewood resources.

This thesis presents new micro palaeontological and geochemical palaenvironmental proxy data through the late Eocene into the earliest Oligocene from a clay-rich succession from the US Gulf Coast. It is based on samples from the Yazoo Clay Formation, recovered in the Mossy Grove Core near Jackson, Mississippi. This represents an apparently continuous section of relatively uniform lithology, clay-rich deposits that host very well preserved assemblages of calcareous nannofossils, foraminifera and organic biomarkers. This thesis makes use of these to generate a detailed calcareous nannofossil taxonomy, high-resolution calcareous nannofossil assemblage data and coccolith-fraction bulk isotope data, as well as pilot planktonic foraminifera abundance and isotope records. It also develops pilot data for organic biomarkers that demonstrate the presence and utility of biomarker proxies for ancient sea surface temperatures within the Yazoo Clay. The results of this project characterize the late Eocene US Gulf Coast as a sub-tropical shelf sea environment that experiences several stages of sea surface cooling and increasing nutrient contents - potentially linked to sea level fall - in the late Eocene and earliest Oligocene. The most important finding of this project is evidence for cooling and major perturbations to the climate-carbon cycle significantly before the onset of the major phases of Antarctic glaciation.

The high floristic biodiversity value of ancient woodland is widely acknowledged, as is its status as a fragmented habitat of limited spatial extent. The distinctive vegetation of ancient woodland is an important factor in its conservation. Specifically, Ancient Woodland Indicator (AWI) species have been shown to be poor dispersers and incompatible with a fragmented habitat that is subject to environmental change. In recognition of their ecological importance, both Ancient Semi-Natural Woodland (ASNW) and Ancient Replanted Woodland (ARW) are protected by legislation. This thesis took the novel approach of examining the distinctiveness and community ecology of vegetation communities in all three woodland types of ASNW, ARW, and recent woodland. Importantly, analyses were based on new high-granularity primary vegetation and soil data. To address questions raised in the literature regarding the accuracy of ancient woodland and AWI identification, this research examined the metrics used to distinguish these habitats and species. Increasingly, the literature calls for further understanding of the ecological drivers of ancient woodland vegetation distinctiveness. In response, this research tested for differences in species composition of canopy, shrub, herb layer, AWI, and moss communities across all three woodland types. For AWI species, biotic, abiotic, and biogeographical variables were analysed for their contribution to community distinctiveness. Results highlighted the importance of consistency in metric selection when assessing the distinctiveness of ancient woodland and determining indicator species. In addition to the usual alpha scale measure of distinctiveness, assessing richness and community composition at the beta and gamma scales is recommended to inform conservation. Life traits and dispersal mechanisms were important differentiators for herb layer community composition among the woodland types. AWI richness was equally strongly explained by biogeographical variables as by ASNW, ARW, and recent status. Overall, this thesis supported ecological and biogeographical explanations for the distinctiveness of ancient woodland vegetation.

The Christian church in the southeast United States is a dominant institution that, if mobilised, has the potential to be a powerful force for environmental engagement and the promotion of pro-environmental behaviour. In an effort to advance understanding of the barriers to such engagement and behaviour change in the region, this thesis considers, in the context of religious Bible Belt communities, 1) the relative influence of different forms of social power on grassroots pro-environmental behaviour change, 2) the alignment of environmental and prosocial engagement, and 3) the characteristics of effective programmes for stimulating grassroots pro-environmental behaviour change. It approaches these areas of research from three different angles: an interdisciplinary review of the literature on behaviour change models, social power, framing and environmental communication more broadly; a Multi-Grounded Theory analysis of 20 semi-structured interviews with leaders in environmental and Christian organisations in the southern US; and a statistical analysis of a web-based survey of self-identified Christians across the politically and religiously conservative region (N = 400, across eleven states) regarding participants’ attitudes towards, participation in and beliefs about environmental and prosocial issues. Key findings include the identification of the ‘champion’ and ‘bridge’ models of action in religious organisations, as well as evidence for distinct (and opposing) influences of religious beliefs (orthodoxy) and religious practices (religiosity) on the gap between prosocial and environmental engagement. The thesis also introduces a new researcher reflexivity methodology for use in qualitative research. Based on the findings, the thesis argues that reducing the liberal stigma of environmentalism is paramount in mobilising Christians for climate change action. To this end, a sustained focus on encouraging specific pro-environmental behaviours framed in terms of altruistic concerns should be undertaken to encourage pro-environmental actions in southern Christian populations.

Terrestrial invertebrates are small poikilothermic ectotherms and are thus susceptible to chronic cold, rapid temperature change and desiccation. In the polar regions, where buffered microhabitat temperatures regularly fall below 0°C and water availability is low, they are particularly vulnerable. However, polar terrestrial invertebrates successfully exist within these climes. Using whole organism experimental techniques, this thesis aims to further understand the capacity of invertebrates to tolerate different stressors, the underpinning physiological adaptations, and the potential impact of continued climate change. For just the second time in a freeze-tolerant polar insect, rapid cold hardening is observed. Acclimation to sub-lethal low temperatures is also demonstrated, through depression of the critical thermal minimum (CTmin) and chill coma temperature. Contrasting strategies of desiccation tolerance vs. resistance are noted, as well as evidence of cross-tolerance to temperature stress. At the opposite extreme, water submergence experiments confirm the first example of an amphibious terrestrial midge. A remarkable capacity to tolerate high temperatures, including those that may occur as a result of climate change, is also observed. This body of work underscores the physiological flexibility of polar invertebrates, which allows them to flourish in environments considered too extreme and inhospitable for most terrestrial species.