O método convencional de ensaios para a obtenção das curvas de fluência de geossintéticos pode necessitar de períodos de até 10.000 horas. Entretanto, a utilização de ensaios acelerados têm se mostrado bastante eficiente, especialmente para avaliar rapidamente a qualidade do material. Estudos bem sucedidos realizados por diversos autores, utilizaram o método Stepped Isothermal Method (SIM) para acelerar a fluência nos geotêxteis. Neste trabalho, com base neste método foi estimada a fluência de dois geotêxteis com 300 g/m² do tipo não tecido de poliéster (PET) de fibra curta e contínua. Neste estudo, foi analisada a fluência causada por carregamentos de 5, 10, 20, 40 e 60% da carga que causa a ruptura do material. Com base nos resultados conclui-se que os valores de deformação por fluência obtidos são satisfatórios, pois as previsões de alcance de até 355 anos estão próximos aos valores encontrados na literatura internacional. Ainda, para o tempo de 100 anos ficou evidenciado que para o geotêxtil não tecido do tipo PET, de fibra curta ou contínua, o comportamento mecânico do geotêxtil é mais influenciado pela deformação inicial do que pela fluência. / The conventional method of tests to achieve the geosynthetic creep curves may require times of up to 10,000 hours. However, the use of accelerated tests have shown to be very effective, especially for rapidly assessing the quality of the material. Successful studies by various authors used the Stepped Isothermal Method Method (SIM) to accelerate creep in geotextiles. In this work, based on this method was estimated creep of two non-woven geotextiles of polyester with 300 g/m², short or continuous fiber. In this study, creep caused by loads of 5, 10, 20, 40 and 60% of the rupture load of the material was analyzed. Based on the results, it is concluded that the creep strain values obtained are satisfactory, because up to 355 years range forecasts are close to those found in the literature. Still, for the 100-year time, it became evident that for the nonwoven geotextile type PET with short or continuous fiber, the mechanical behavior of the geotextile is more influenced by the initial deformation than by creep.

Em todo o mundo, as redes aéreas de distribuição de energia elétrica levam energia a todos os consumidores. Parte destas redes utilizam cruzetas como meio de sustentação mecânica para cabos. Estas cruzetas podem atualmente ser produzidas em fibra de vidro, plásticos reciclados (Polietileno, Polipropileno de primeira produção) e outros materiais híbridos, usando polímeros e barras de aço para inserir resistência mecânica. Os custos destes materiais ainda são elevados e o seu processo de reciclagem ainda apresenta problemas no processo de logística reversa, impondo custos elevados. Alguns países, como Noruega e Estados Unidos, usam cruzeta de madeira laminada com sucesso, como material alternativo em suportes de linhas de transmissão e de distribuição. A cruzeta tradicional de madeira nativa é ainda empregada no Brasil, com uso restrito às redes de distribuição de energia elétrica. A aplicação contínua da madeira é atribuída principalmente ao baixo custo comparado com o de outros materiais empregados nos elementos do sistema de energia elétrica. Entretanto, considerações ambientais e baixa estimativa de vida da madeira têm mudado esta situação, conduzindo ao aumento de pesquisa nesta área. Neste trabalho foram discutidas duas espécies de madeira de reflorestamento, Pinus elliottii e Eucalyptus citriodora, impregnadas com resinas poliuretanas derivadas do óleo de mamona e revestidas com manta geotêxtil. Durante a execução dos trabalhos, foi detectada fragilidades mecânicas na madeira Pinus elliottii. Apenas a madeira Eucalyptus citriodora atende plenamente as necessidades do produto final. É importante observar que a resina empregada é uma matéria prima totalmente nacional, e que esta pesquisa contribui para a sua aplicação no desenvolvimento de um novo produto (cruzetas de madeiras resinadas revestidas com geotêxtil), com tecnologia totalmente brasileira, utilizando-se madeiras de reflorestamento, tipo Eucalyptus Citriodora. Estas cruzetas, além de respeitarem as leis ambientais, também apresentaram um excelente desempenho mecânico e elétrico, com ótimas perspectivas de instalações na rede de distribuição de energia elétrica, a um custo competitivo. Este trabalho apresenta avanço significativo no aumento da vida útil destas madeiras, ampliando o tempo para substituições de cruzetas nas redes de distribuição de energia e contribuindo com a preservação da natureza. / Aerial distribution networks take energy to consumers worldwide. Part of these networks use cross arms as a means of mechanical support for cables. These cross arms can be currently produced on glass fiber, recycled plastics (polyethylene, polypropylene first production) and other hybrid materials, using polymers and inserting steel bars for mechanical strength. The costs of these materials are still elevated and its recycling process also presents problems in the reverse logistics process, imposing high costs. In some countries, like Norway and USA, wood laminated cross arms have been used as an alternative material to support transmission and distribution lines with success, whereas traditional native wood cross arms are still used in Brazil restricted to energy distribution networks. Wood application is continued mainly due to its low cost compared to other materials applied in the electric energy system. However, environmental considerations and low wood life time estimate have changed this situation leading to increased research in this area. In this work we discussed two types of wood reforestation, Pinus elliottii and Eucalyptus citriodora, impregnated with polyurethanes resins derived from castor oil and coated with a geotextile blanket. It is important to observe that the resin employed is a national raw material, and that this research contributes to its application in the development of a new product (cross arms of resinous woods lined with a geotextile blanket) with complete Brazilian technology, using reforested wood, type Eucalyptus citriodora. These cross arms not only comply with environmental laws, but also present an excellent mechanical and electrical performance with great installation perspectives in the electricity distribution network at a competitive cost. This paper presents a significant step forward in increasing the life of these woods, extending time to cross arm replacements in power distribution networks, and contributing to nature preservation.

Em todo o mundo, as redes aéreas de distribuição de energia elétrica levam energia a todos os consumidores. Parte destas redes utilizam cruzetas como meio de sustentação mecânica para cabos. Estas cruzetas podem atualmente ser produzidas em fibra de vidro, plásticos reciclados (Polietileno, Polipropileno de primeira produção) e outros materiais híbridos, usando polímeros e barras de aço para inserir resistência mecânica. Os custos destes materiais ainda são elevados e o seu processo de reciclagem ainda apresenta problemas no processo de logística reversa, impondo custos elevados. Alguns países, como Noruega e Estados Unidos, usam cruzeta de madeira laminada com sucesso, como material alternativo em suportes de linhas de transmissão e de distribuição. A cruzeta tradicional de madeira nativa é ainda empregada no Brasil, com uso restrito às redes de distribuição de energia elétrica. A aplicação contínua da madeira é atribuída principalmente ao baixo custo comparado com o de outros materiais empregados nos elementos do sistema de energia elétrica. Entretanto, considerações ambientais e baixa estimativa de vida da madeira têm mudado esta situação, conduzindo ao aumento de pesquisa nesta área. Neste trabalho foram discutidas duas espécies de madeira de reflorestamento, Pinus elliottii e Eucalyptus citriodora, impregnadas com resinas poliuretanas derivadas do óleo de mamona e revestidas com manta geotêxtil. Durante a execução dos trabalhos, foi detectada fragilidades mecânicas na madeira Pinus elliottii. Apenas a madeira Eucalyptus citriodora atende plenamente as necessidades do produto final. É importante observar que a resina empregada é uma matéria prima totalmente nacional, e que esta pesquisa contribui para a sua aplicação no desenvolvimento de um novo produto (cruzetas de madeiras resinadas revestidas com geotêxtil), com tecnologia totalmente brasileira, utilizando-se madeiras de reflorestamento, tipo Eucalyptus Citriodora. Estas cruzetas, além de respeitarem as leis ambientais, também apresentaram um excelente desempenho mecânico e elétrico, com ótimas perspectivas de instalações na rede de distribuição de energia elétrica, a um custo competitivo. Este trabalho apresenta avanço significativo no aumento da vida útil destas madeiras, ampliando o tempo para substituições de cruzetas nas redes de distribuição de energia e contribuindo com a preservação da natureza. / Aerial distribution networks take energy to consumers worldwide. Part of these networks use cross arms as a means of mechanical support for cables. These cross arms can be currently produced on glass fiber, recycled plastics (polyethylene, polypropylene first production) and other hybrid materials, using polymers and inserting steel bars for mechanical strength. The costs of these materials are still elevated and its recycling process also presents problems in the reverse logistics process, imposing high costs. In some countries, like Norway and USA, wood laminated cross arms have been used as an alternative material to support transmission and distribution lines with success, whereas traditional native wood cross arms are still used in Brazil restricted to energy distribution networks. Wood application is continued mainly due to its low cost compared to other materials applied in the electric energy system. However, environmental considerations and low wood life time estimate have changed this situation leading to increased research in this area. In this work we discussed two types of wood reforestation, Pinus elliottii and Eucalyptus citriodora, impregnated with polyurethanes resins derived from castor oil and coated with a geotextile blanket. It is important to observe that the resin employed is a national raw material, and that this research contributes to its application in the development of a new product (cross arms of resinous woods lined with a geotextile blanket) with complete Brazilian technology, using reforested wood, type Eucalyptus citriodora. These cross arms not only comply with environmental laws, but also present an excellent mechanical and electrical performance with great installation perspectives in the electricity distribution network at a competitive cost. This paper presents a significant step forward in increasing the life of these woods, extending time to cross arm replacements in power distribution networks, and contributing to nature preservation.

L'objectif de ces travaux de thèse est d'étudier l'effet de l'hétérogénéité du milieu poreux et de la stratification sur l'écoulement et le transfert colloïdal par des expériences de traçage non réactif et d'injection d'une suspension colloïdale en colonnes de laboratoire. Cette étude a été appliquée à des milieux à double porosité naturelle (milieu granulaire) et artificielle (sable avec macropore artificiel) en conditions saturées et non saturées. L'effet de la stratification de deux milieux a été étudié par amendement avec un géotextile. La modélisation numérique a été utilisée pour proposer et valider un modèle conceptuel d'écoulement et de transfert dans un milieu sableux rendu hétérogène par introduction d'un macropore artificiel ainsi qu'un modèle d'influence de la stratification. Les résultats expérimentaux et la modélisation ont permi de mettre en évidence l'effet de la stratification comme réducteur du rôle joué par la macroporosité. Alors qu'en conditions non saturées, la stratification n'induit aucune modification de l'écoulement, en saturé, elle réduit les écoulements et les transferts préférentiels au sein de la macroporosité en favorisant la redistribution de l'eau et des solutés de la macroporosité vers la microporosité au droit de la strate. Une des applications pratiques de ce travail concerne la réduction du transfert colloïdal, potentiellement vecteur de pollution, par l'introduction de géotextiles dans le sol des bassins d'infiltration.

Environmental conditions such as temperature inevitably impact the long term performance, strength and deformation characteristics of most materials in infrastructure applications. The mechanical and durability properties of geosynthetic materials are strongly temperature dependent. The interfaces between geotextiles and geomembranes as well as between granular materials such as sands and geomembranes in landfill applications are subject to temperature changes due to seasonal temperature variations as well as exothermic reactions occurring in the waste body. This can be a critical factor governing the stability of modern waste containment lining systems. Historically, most laboratory geosynthetic interface testing has been performed at room temperature. Information today is emerging that shows how temperatures in the liner systems of landfills can be much higher. An extensive research study was undertaken in an effort to investigate temperature effects on interface shear behavior between (a) NPNW polypropylene geotextiles and both smooth PVC as well as smooth and textured HDPE geomembranes and (b) sands of different angularity and smooth PVC and HDPE geomembranes. A temperature controlled chamber was designed and developed to simulate elevated temperature field conditions and shear displacement-failure mechanisms at these higher temperatures. The physical laboratory testing program consisted of multiple series of interface shear tests between material combinations found in landfill applications under a range of normal stress levels from 10 to 400 kPa and at a range of test temperatures from 20 to 50 °C. Complementary geotextile single filament tensile tests were performed at different temperatures using a dynamic thermo-mechanical analyzer (DMA) to evaluate tensile strength properties of geotextile single filaments at elevated temperatures. The single filament studies are important since the interface strength between geotextiles and geomembranes is controlled by the fabric global matrix properties as well as the micro-scale characteristics of the geotextile and how it interacts with the geomembrane macro-topography. The peak interface strength for sand-geomembrane as well as geotextile-geomembrane interfaces depends on the geomembrane properties such as hardness and micro texture. To this end, the surface hardness of smooth HDPE and PVC geomembrane samples was measured at different temperatures in the temperature controlled chamber to evaluate how temperature changes affect the interface shear behavior and strength of geomembranes in combination with granular materials and/or geotextiles. The focus of this portion of the experimental work was to examine: i) the change in geomembrane hardness with temperature; ii) develop empirical relationships to predict shear strength properties of sand - geomembrane interfaces as a function of temperature; and iii) compare the results of empirically predicted frictional shear strength properties with the results of direct measurements from the interface shear tests performed at different elevated temperatures.

Για τον προσδιορισμό της πορομετρικής καμπύλης των γεωυφασμάτων διατίθενται σήμερα τρία πρότυπα (ASTM D6767, EN ISO 12956 και ASTM D4751) που θεωρούνται “διεθνούς” αποδοχής. Το πιο πρόσφατο από αυτά (ASTM D6767) εγκρίθηκε το 2002, ορίζει μέθοδο με βάση τη ροή σε τριχοειδή και αποτελεί το κύριο αντικείμενο της παρούσας διατριβής. Ελέγχθηκαν 52 μη υφασμένα γεωυφάσματα κατασκευασμένα από ίνες πολυπροπυλενίου τόσο κατά ASTM D6767 όσο και κατά EN ISO 12956 (υγρό κοσκίνισμα) και ASTM D4751 (ξηρό κοσκίνισμα). Τα αποτελέσματα που προέκυψαν συγκρίθηκαν τόσο μεταξύ τους όσο και με φυσικές ιδιότητες των γεωυφασμάτων, με τιμές μεγεθών που παρέχουν οι κατασκευαστές αυτών των προϊόντων και με τιμές μεγεθών που υπολογίζονται θεωρητικά. Τα μεγέθη πόρων και οι πορομετρικές καμπύλες που προκύπτουν εργαστηριακά με εφαρμογή κάθε μίας από τις τρεις μεθόδους είναι διαφορετικά. Αυτό οφείλεται στις διαφορετικές παραδοχές ή υποθέσεις κάθε μεθόδου αλλά και στις διαδικασίες που προβλέπει η κάθε μέθοδος. Ειδικότερα, οι δύο βασικές υποθέσεις του προτύπου ASTM D6767 αφορούν τη γωνία επαφής, θ, μεταξύ ρευστού και στερεού (τίθεται ίση με μηδέν) και τη μορφή της διατομής των πόρων των γεωυφασμάτων (κυλινδρική). Λόγω της δομής των μη υφασμένων γεωυφασμάτων οι δύο παραπάνω υποθέσεις δεν είναι δυνατόν να επαληθευθούν. Για τον λόγο αυτό στην εξίσωση προσδιορισμού των μεγεθών πόρων του προτύπου ASTM D6767 εισάγεται διορθωτικός συντελεστής. Από την επεξεργασία των αποτελεσμάτων της παρούσας διατριβής προέκυψε ότι ο συντελεστής αυτός πρέπει να έχει τιμή ίση με 1/3 (για τη συγκεκριμένη συσκευή που χρησιμοποιήθηκε και τις διαδικασίες που εφαρμόστηκαν για την εκτέλεση των δοκιμών) ώστε τα αποτελέσματα να προσεγγίζουν ικανοποιητικά αυτά της δοκιμής κατά EN ISO 12956. / Three internationally accepted standards (ASTM D6767, EN ISO 12956 and ASTM D4751) are available today for determing the pore size distribution of geotextiles. The most recently approved standard (2002) is ASTM D6767 which defines a method based on capillary flow. Laboratory testing according to this standard is the main subject of this thesis. Fifty two nonwoven geotextiles, made of polypropylene fibers, were tested according to the three standardized methods (ASTM D6767, EN ISO 12956 – wet sieving and ASTM D4751 – dry sieving). Comparisons were made between the results obtained from each standardized method as well as between measured pore sizes and geotextile physical properties, manufacturer provided pore sizes and values obtained theoretically. Different pore sizes and pore size distribution curves are obtained when different laboratory standard methods are applied. This is due to the different assumptions on which each method is based and also due to the procedures that each method specifies. The two main assumptions of the Standard ASTM D6767 concern the contact angle, θ, between liquid and solid (equal to zero) and the pore shapes of the geotextiles (cylindrical). Due to the structure of the nonwoven geotextiles the effect of these assumptions is different to quantify. Accordingly, the computation of pore sizes according standard ASTM D6767 is based on the introduction of a correction coefficient in the pertinent equation. The results obtained during this correction coefficient should have a value equal to 1/3 for the particular device used and the procedures applied. Use of this correction coefficient fields results that approximate very well the results obtained from wet sieving tests according to Standard EN ISO 12956.

Αντικείμενο της διατριβής αυτής είναι η εργαστηριακή διερεύνηση της εφαρμογής του πρότυπου ΕΝ 13719 με το οποίο εκτιμάται η προστασία που παρέχουν γεωυφάσματα σε γεωμεμβράνες έναντι αστοχίας λόγω μηχανικών καταπονήσεων. Για την εκτέλεση των εργαστηριακών δοκιμών σχεδιάστηκε και κατασκευάστηκε κατάλληλη εργαστηριακή διάταξη καθώς και σύστημα μέτρησης παραμορφώσεων σύμφωνα με τις προβλέψεις του πρότυπου ΕΝ 13719. Ελέγχθηκαν συνολικά 16 μη υφασμένα γεωυφάσματα από ίνες πολυπροπυλενίου. Τα γεωυφάσματα προέρχονται από έξι διαφορετικούς κατασκευαστές και επιλέχτηκαν έτσι ώστε να καλύπτεται ικανό εύρος τιμών για τις φυσικές και μηχανικές ιδιότητές τους (μάζα ανά μονάδα επιφάνειας από 186 g/m 2 έως 1407 g/ m2, πάχος 1.6 mm έως 10.1 mm, αντοχή σε εφελκυσμό 11.5 kΝ/m έως 103.4 kN/m και αντοχή σε διάτρηση 2.1 kN έως 16.4 kN). Οι τιμές του δείκτη προστασίας που προσδιορίστηκαν σύμφωνα με το πρότυπο ΕΝ 13719, κυμαίνονται μεταξύ 22.6x103 kPa έως 59.5x103 kPa. Στο πλαίσιο της διερεύνησης, έγιναν παρατηρήσεις σχετικά με την ανισοκατανομή του εφαρμοζόμενου φορτίου στη βάση του προσομοιωμένου αδρανούς με βάση το μέγεθος και την κατανομή των παραμορφώσεων που αποτυπώνονται σε φύλλο μολύβδου. Η ανομοιομορφία των παραμορφώσεων ή των βυθίσεων του φύλλου μολύβδου είναι έντονη για την ονομαστική τάση των 300 kPa και μειώνεται όσο αυξάνεται η ονομαστική τάση (σε 600 kPa και 1100 kPa). Επιπλέον, διερευνήθηκε η εξέλιξη με το χρόνο της συμπίεσης του συνόλου των υλικών που συνθέτουν την εργαστηριακή διάταξη καθώς και η επίδραση του περιορισμού της χρονικής διάρκειας της δοκιμής (από 100 hr σε 25 hr ) τόσο στις μετρούμενες παραμορφώσεις όσο και στον υπολογιζόμενο δείκτη προστασίας. Τέλος, διερευνήθηκε η δυνατότητα συσχέτισης των τιμών του δείκτη προστασίας κατά ΕΝ 13719 με φυσικές και μηχανικές ιδιότητες των γεωυφασμάτων τόσο για σειρές γεωυφασμάτων από έναν κατασκευαστή όσο και για το σύνολο των γεωυφασμάτων που ελέγχθηκαν. Κατά την διάρκεια εκτέλεσης δοκιμής κατά ΕΝ 13719, η συνολική συμπίεση της εργαστηριακής διάταξης στο στάδιο σταθερού φορτίου οφείλεται πιθανότατα στη συμπίεση των υπόλοιπων υλικών της εργαστηριακής διάταξης και όχι στο ίδιο το γεωύφασμα. Το γεωύφασμα αναμένεται να έχει εξαντλήσει τη συμπιεστότητά του κατά το αρχικό στάδιο της δοκιμής, δηλαδή κατά την πρώτη ώρα, όπου το φορτίο αυξάνεται με σταθερό φορτίο έως ότου φτάσει τη μέγιστη προβλεπόμενη τιμή του. Τα πειραματικά δεδομένα χρόνου–συμπίεσης δοκιμών διάρκειας 25 hr προσαρμόζονται εξαιρετικά με καμπύλες της μορφής y= Alnx+B, επιτρέποντας την προεκβολή τους για χρονικό διάστημα 100 hr. Η πρόσθετη αναμενόμενη συμπίεση της εργαστηριακής διάταξης για το διάστημα 25 hr έως 100 hr δε σχετίζεται με το μέγεθος του εξωτερικά ασκούμενου φορτίου, δηλαδή προκύπτουν περίπου ίδιες μετακινήσεις για διαφορετικά φορτία. Οι δείκτες προστασίας που υπολογίζονται με τη δυσμενή υπόθεση ότι η πρόσθετη συμπίεση οφείλεται αποκλειστικά στη συμπίεση του ελαστικού υποστρώματος, διαφέρουν από 0% έως 1.4%, με μέσο όρο 0.6%, από τους δείκτες που υπολογίζονται από δοκιμές διάρκειας 25hr. Κατά συνέπεια, τα αποτελέσματα των δοκιμών με διάρκεια 25 hr είναι αντιπροσωπευτικά των αποτελεσμάτων που θα λαμβάνονταν εάν οι δοκιμές διαρκούσαν 100 hr και δίνουν μια πολύ καλή εκτίμηση του δείκτη προστασίας των γεωυφασμάτων. Για το σύνολο των γεωυφασμάτων που ελέγχθηκαν, οι τιμές του δείκτη προστασίας παρουσιάζουν αυξητική τάση με την αύξηση των τιμών των φυσικών ή/και των μηχανικών ιδιοτήτων των γεωυφασμάτων. Συσχετίσεις τόσο με τη μάζα ανά μονάδα επιφάνειας όσο και με τις μηχανικές ιδιότητες που ποιοτικά κυμαίνονται από πολύ καλές (γεωυφάσματα Geofabrics) έως ανύπαρκτες (γεωυφάσματα Synthetic Ind.). Συσχετίσεις του δείκτη προστασίας με το πάχος ή το ειδικό βάρος των γεωυφασμάτων είναι κατώτερες ποιοτικά της συσχέτισης με τη μάζα ανά μονάδα επιφάνειας. / This dissertation is a laboratorial investigation on the application of standard EN 13719. The purpose of this standard is to evaluate the protection provided to geomembranes by geotextiles, in order to avoid the failure due to mechanic stress. The tests (in laboratory) were conducted after designing and constructing a suitable device and a system of measurement for deformations according to the standard EN 13719 provisions. A total of 16 nonwoven polypropylene geotextiles, representing 6 manufacturers were checked in order to cover an adequate range of physical and mechanical properties (mass per unit area 186 g/m2 to 1407 g/m2, thickness 1.6mm to 10.1mm, tensile strength 11.5 kN/m to 103.4 kN/m and puncture resistance 2.1 kN to 16.4kN). The values of protection index obtained ranged between 22.6x103 kPa to 59.5 kPa. During the investigation, observations were made with respect to the nonuniform distribution of the applied load at the base of the standard aggregate, as represented by deformations of the metal sheet. This strain nonuniform distribution was more obvious for the smallest stress of 300 kPa. In addition, the total compression of the materials in the laboratorial device was examined and the influence of reduced test duration ( from 100 hr to 25 hr ) was evaluated. Finally, correlations were obtained between protection index and physical and mechanical properties of geotextiles from the same manufacturer and for all specimens. During the tests, the total compression of the materials in the laboratorial device under constant stress ( second stage ) was most probably due to all the materials except the geotextile. The geotextile perhaps had expended its compressibility at the first stage of the test when the stress was applied incrementally over a period of one hour. The compression – time data were filled by logarithmic curves in order to predict the compression at 100 hr. Protection index calculated for 100 hr varied from that for 25 hr by 0% to 1.4% with an average of 0.6%. Consequently, the results of testing for 25 hr were representative of those for 100hr and gave a very good estimation of the protection index . For the total of geotextiles tested, the protection index increased as the physical and mechanical properties increased. Correlations between protection index and mass per unit area and mechanical properties ranged from very good ( geotextiles Geofabrics) to nonexistent ( geotextiles Synthetic Ind.). Correlations between protection index and thickness or specific gravity were qualitatively lower than those between protection index and mass per unit area.

Αντικείμενο της Διατριβής αυτής είναι η εργαστηριακή διερεύνηση της εφαρμογής του πρότυπου ΕΝ 13719 με το οποίο εκτιμάται η προστασία που παρέχουν γεωυφάσματα σε γεωμεμβράνες έναντι αστοχίας λόγω μηχανικών καταπονήσεων. Για την εκτέλεση των εργαστηριακών δοκιμών σχεδιάστηκε και κατασκευάστηκε κατάλληλη εργαστηριακή διάταξη καθώς και σύστημα μέτρησης παραμορφώσεων σύμφωνα με τις προβλέψεις του πρότυπου ΕΝ 13719. Ελέγχθηκαν συνολικά 16 μη υφασμένα γεωυφάσματα από ίνες πολυπροπυλενίου. Τα γεωυφάσματα προέρχονται από έξι διαφορετικούς κατασκευαστές και επιλέχτηκαν έτσι ώστε να καλύπτεται ικανό εύρος τιμών για τις φυσικές και μηχανικές ιδιότητές τους (μάζα ανά μονάδα επιφάνειας από 186 g/ m 2 έως 1407 g/ m2, πάχος 1.6 mm έως 10.1 mm, αντοχή σε εφελκυσμό 11.5 kΝ/m έως 103.4 kN/m και αντοχή σε διάτρηση 2.1 kN έως 16.4 kN). Οι τιμές του δείκτη προστασίας που προσδιορίστηκαν σύμφωνα με το πρότυπο ΕΝ 13719, κυμαίνονται μεταξύ 22.6x103 kPa έως 59.5x103 kPa. Στο πλαίσιο της διερεύνησης, έγιναν παρατηρήσεις σχετικά με την ανισοκατανομή του εφαρμοζόμενου φορτίου στη βάση του προσομοιωμένου αδρανούς με βάση το μέγεθος και την κατανομή των παραμορφώσεων που αποτυπώνονται σε φύλλο μολύβδου. Η ανομοιομορφία των παραμορφώσεων ή των βυθίσεων του φύλλου μολύβδου είναι έντονη για την ονομαστική τάση των 300 kPa και μειώνεται όσο αυξάνεται η ονομαστική τάση (σε 600 kPa και 1100 kPa). Επιπλέον, διερευνήθηκε η εξέλιξη με το χρόνο της συμπίεσης του συνόλου των υλικών που συνθέτουν την εργαστηριακή διάταξη καθώς και η επίδραση του περιορισμού της χρονικής διάρκειας της δοκιμής (από 100 hr σε 25 hr) τόσο στις μετρούμενες παραμορφώσεις όσο και στον υπολογιζόμενο δείκτη προστασίας. Τέλος, διερευνήθηκε η δυνατότητα αντικατάστασης της προτεινόμενης από το πρότυπο διαδικασίας με άλλη απλούστερη και ταχύτερη στην εκτέλεσή της. Για το λόγο αυτό σχεδιάστηκε και κατασκευάστηκε κατάλληλη διάταξη, εκτελέστηκαν αντίστοιχες δοκιμές και τα αποτελέσματα συγκρίθηκαν με αυτά που προκύπτουν από δοκιμές που εκτελούνται εφαρμόζοντας το πρότυπο ΕΝ 13719. Κατά την διάρκεια εκτέλεσης δοκιμής κατά ΕΝ 13719, η συνολική συμπίεση της εργαστηριακής διάταξης στο στάδιο σταθερού φορτίου οφείλεται πιθανότατα στη συμπίεση των υπόλοιπων υλικών της εργαστηριακής διάταξης και όχι στο ίδιο το γεωύφασμα. Το γεωύφασμα αναμένεται να έχει εξαντλήσει τη συμπιεστότητά του κατά το αρχικό στάδιο της δοκιμής, δηλαδή κατά την πρώτη ώρα, όπου το φορτίο αυξάνεται με σταθερό φορτίο έως ότου φτάσει τη μέγιστη προβλεπόμενη τιμή του. Τα πειραματικά δεδομένα χρόνου–συμπίεσης δοκιμών διάρκειας 25 hr προσαρμόζονται εξαιρετικά με καμπύλες της μορφής , επιτρέποντας την προεκβολή τους για χρονικό διάστημα 100 hr. Η πρόσθετη αναμενόμενη συμπίεση της εργαστηριακής διάταξης για το διάστημα 25 hr έως 100 hr δε σχετίζεται με το μέγεθος του εξωτερικά ασκούμενου φορτίου, δηλαδή προκύπτουν περίπου ίδιες μετακινήσεις για διαφορετικά φορτία. Οι δείκτες προστασίας που υπολογίζονται με τη δυσμενή υπόθεση ότι η πρόσθετη συμπίεση οφείλεται αποκλειστικά στη συμπίεση του ελαστικού υποστρώματος, διαφέρουν από 0% έως 1.4%, με μέσο όρο 0.6%, από τους δείκτες που υπολογίζονται από δοκιμές διάρκειας 25hr. Κατά συνέπεια, τα αποτελέσματα των δοκιμών με διάρκεια 25 hr είναι αντιπροσωπευτικά των αποτελεσμάτων που θα λαμβάνονταν εάν οι δοκιμές διαρκούσαν 100 hr και δίνουν μια πολύ καλή εκτίμηση του δείκτη προστασίας των γεωυφασμάτων. Για το σύνολο των γεωυφασμάτων που ελέγχθηκαν, οι τιμές του δείκτη προστασίας παρουσιάζουν αυξητική τάση με την αύξηση των τιμών των φυσικών ή/και των μηχανικών ιδιοτήτων των γεωυφασμάτων. Η συσχέτιση του δείκτη προστασίας με φυσικές ή/και μηχανικές ιδιότητες μπορεί, ποιοτικά, να είναι από πολύ καλή έως και αδύνατη. Οι τιμές του δείκτη προστασίας που προέκυψαν από δοκιμές που εκτελέστηκαν με απλοποιημένη διάταξη και διαδικασίες (μηδενικός χρόνος διατήρησης σταθερού φορτίου, μια στρώση σφαιρών, διπλάσια ονομαστική τάση) διαφέρουν από 1% έως 24%, με μέσο όρο 10%, από τις τιμές που υπολογίζονται κατά ΕΝ 13719. Κατά συνέπεια, ενισχύεται η άποψη ότι η πρότυπη δοκιμή μπορεί να προσομοιωθεί πολύ ικανοποιητικά με χρήση απλούστερης εργαστηριακής διάταξης πετυχαίνοντας σημαντική μείωση του απαιτούμενου χρόνου για την εκτέλεσή της. / This dissertation is a laboratory investigation of the application of Standard EN 13719 which has been established in order to evaluate the protection provided to geomembranes by geotextiles against failure due to external mechanical loads. For the purposes of this investigation, a suitable device and a system for deformation measurement were designed and conducted according to the provisions of standard EN 13719. A total of 16 nonwoven polypropylene geotextiles, representing 6 manufacturers were tested in order to cover an adequate range of physical and mechanical properties (mass per unit area 186 g/m2 to 1407 g/m2, thickness 1.6mm to 10.1mm, tensile strength 11.5 kN/m to 103.4 kN/m and puncture resistance 2.1 kN to 16.4kN). The values of protection index obtained ranged between 22.6x103 kPa to 59.5 x103 kPa. During the investigation, observations were made with respect to the nonuniform distribution of the applied load at the base of the standard aggregate, as represented by deformations of the metal sheet. This strain nonuniform distribution was more pronounced for the smallest applied stress of 300 kPa. In addition, the total compression of the materials in the laboratory device was examined and the influence of reduced test duration (from 100 hr to 25 hr) was evaluated. Finally, correlations were obtained between protection index and physical and mechanical properties of geotextiles from the same manufacturer as well as for all samples tested. During the tests, the observed total compression of the materials in the laboratory device under constant stress (second stage) was most probably due to the rest of the materials and not to the geotextile itself. The geotextile is expected to have had expended its compressibility during the first stage of the test when the stress was applied incrementally over a period of one hour. The compression – time data were fitted by logarithmic curves in order to predict the compression at 100 hr. Protection index values calculated for a test duration of 100 hr varied from those measured for 25 hr by 0% to 1.4% with an average of 0.6%. Consequently, the results of testing for 25 hr were representative of those for 100hr and gave a very good estimation of the protection index . For the total of geotextiles tested, the protection index values increased as the physical and mechanical properties values increased. Correlations between protection index and mass per unit area and mechanical properties ranged from very good (Geofabrics geotextiles) to nonexistent (Synthetic Ind. geotextiles). Correlations between protection index and thickness or specific gravity were qualitatively lower than those between protection index and mass per unit area. The protection index values obtained from tests conducted with a simplified laboratory divice and simplified procedures (no time allowed for constant load, one layer of spheres, double values for applied stress) differed by 1% to 24%, with an average of 10%, from the protection index values obtained according to EN 13719. Accordingly, there are strong indications that the standard procedures can be adequately simulated using simpler laboratory device and procedures and reducing significantly the required testing time.

O método convencional de ensaios para a obtenção das curvas de fluência de geossintéticos pode necessitar de períodos de até 10.000 horas. Entretanto, a utilização de ensaios acelerados têm se mostrado bastante eficiente, especialmente para avaliar rapidamente a qualidade do material. Estudos bem sucedidos realizados por diversos autores, utilizaram o método Stepped Isothermal Method (SIM) para acelerar a fluência nos geotêxteis. Neste trabalho, com base neste método foi estimada a fluência de dois geotêxteis com 300 g/m² do tipo não tecido de poliéster (PET) de fibra curta e contínua. Neste estudo, foi analisada a fluência causada por carregamentos de 5, 10, 20, 40 e 60% da carga que causa a ruptura do material. Com base nos resultados conclui-se que os valores de deformação por fluência obtidos são satisfatórios, pois as previsões de alcance de até 355 anos estão próximos aos valores encontrados na literatura internacional. Ainda, para o tempo de 100 anos ficou evidenciado que para o geotêxtil não tecido do tipo PET, de fibra curta ou contínua, o comportamento mecânico do geotêxtil é mais influenciado pela deformação inicial do que pela fluência. / The conventional method of tests to achieve the geosynthetic creep curves may require times of up to 10,000 hours. However, the use of accelerated tests have shown to be very effective, especially for rapidly assessing the quality of the material. Successful studies by various authors used the Stepped Isothermal Method Method (SIM) to accelerate creep in geotextiles. In this work, based on this method was estimated creep of two non-woven geotextiles of polyester with 300 g/m², short or continuous fiber. In this study, creep caused by loads of 5, 10, 20, 40 and 60% of the rupture load of the material was analyzed. Based on the results, it is concluded that the creep strain values obtained are satisfactory, because up to 355 years range forecasts are close to those found in the literature. Still, for the 100-year time, it became evident that for the nonwoven geotextile type PET with short or continuous fiber, the mechanical behavior of the geotextile is more influenced by the initial deformation than by creep.

Correct understanding of passive force behavior is particularly key to lateral evaluations of bridges because plastic deformation of soil backfill is vital to dissipation of earthquake energy and thermally-induced stresses in abutments. Only recently have studies investigated the effects of skew on passive force. Numerical modeling and a handful of skewed abutment tests performed in sand backfill have found reduced passive force with increasing skew, but previous to this study no skewed tests had been performed in gravel or Geosynthetic Reinforced Soil (GRS) backfills. The goal of this study was to better understand passive force behavior in non-skewed and skewed abutments with gravel and GRS backfills. Prior to this study, passive pressures in a GRS integrated approach had not been investigated. Gravel backfills also lack extensive passive force tests.Large-scale testing was performed with non-skewed and 30° skewed abutment configurations. Two tests were performed at each skew angle, one with unconfined gravel backfill and one with GRS backfill, for a total of four tests. The test abutment backwall was 11 ft (3.35 m) wide, non-skewed, and 5.5 ft (1.68 m) high and loaded laterally into the backfill. However, due to actuator loading constraints, all tests except the non-skewed unconfined gravel test were performed to a backfill height of 3.5 ft (1.07 m). The passive force results for the unconfined gravel test was scaled to a 3.5 ft (1.07 m) height for comparison.Test results in both sets of backfills confirmed previous findings that there is significant reduction in passive force with skewed abutment configurations. The reduction factor was 0.58 for the gravel backfill and 0.63 for the GRS backfill, compared to the predicted reduction factor of 0.53 for a 30° skew. These results are within the scatter of previous skewed testing, but could indicate that slightly higher reduction factors may be applicable for gravel backfills. Both backfills exhibited greater passive strength than sand backfills due to increased internal friction angle and unit weight. The GRS backfill had reduced initial stiffness and only reached 79% to 87% of the passive force developed by the unreinforced gravel backfill. This reduction was considered to be a result of reduced interface friction due to the geotextile. Additionally, the GRS behaved more linearly than unreinforced soil. This backfill elasticity is favorable in the GRS-Integrated Bridge System (GRS-IBS) abutment configuration because it allows thermal movement without developing excessive induced stresses in the bridge superstructure.