A Doença de Parkinson, uma condição neurodegenerativa e progressiva, está relacionada à morte de neurônios localizados na Substância Negra compacta, um dos componentes dos Núcleos da Base. Quando há a morte de neurônios dopaminérgicos nigrais, esta via modulatória é perdida, levando ao desequilíbrio entre as vias direta e indireta, esta última tendo sua atividade aumentada em detrimento da outra. O estriado tem um papel importante no recebimento e filtração de sinais motores corticais e talâmicos e suas maiores populações neuronais são GABAérgicas, demonstrando a importância do neurotransmissor GABA nesta modulação. O estriado recebe projeções dopaminérgicas vindas da Substância Negra compacta e, na falta desta aferentação, surgem os sintomas e sinais da Doença de Parkinson. Nosso objetivo é caracterizar a liberação de GABA nesta estrutura, avaliando os efeitos de outros transmissores e também o papel de alguns sinalizadores intracelulares neste processo. Para isto, empregamos o método de superfusão e liberação de GABA radiomarcado, previamente carregado, em tecido picado in vitro. A lesão nigral é produzida por cirurgia estereotáxica e microinjeção de 6-OHDA no feixe medial prosencefálico (mfb). Diversas drogas foram utilizadas para avaliarmos diferentes passos na liberação do transmissor. Concluímos que a liberação é fortemente dependente de cálcio e segue o modelo de exocitose vesicular, além de a subpopulação neuronal GABAérgica estrital estudada sofrer pouca influência de aferências glutamatérgicas e colinérgicas. No entanto, drogas dopaminérgicas regulam complexamente a liberação de GABA no estriado e ela também é bastante dependente de calmodulina. Conjecturamos se algumas drogas antipsicóticas que agem sobre calmodulina devem seu efeito terapêutico, ou parte dele, a esta ação e se, no modelo de DP de lesão unilateral por 6-OHDA, há comunicação entre os hemisférios lesado e não lesado após o estabelecimento da lesão e processo de rearranjo neuronal / Parkinsons disease, a progressive and neurodegenerative condition, is related to the death of neurons located in Substantia Nigra compacta, a component of Basal Ganglia. When nigral dopaminergic neurons die, this modulatory pathway is lost leading to imbalance between direct and indirect pathways, the latter having its activity increased over the former. Striatum has an essential role in receiving and filtering motor signals from cortex and thalamus and its major neuronal populations are composed by GABAergic neurons, showing how important is GABA in this modulation. Striatum receives dopaminergic projections from Substantia Nigra compacta and in its absence the typical signals and symptoms of the disease arise. We aimed to characterize GABA relase at this structure, assessing the effect of other transmitters as well the role of some intracellular signaling molecules in this process. For that, we employed the superfusion method and release of preloaded radiolabeled GABA from chopped striatal tissue. Nigral injury was produced by stereotaxic surgery and 6-OHDA microinjection at medial forebrain bundle (mfb). Several drugs were used to evaluate different steps in transmitter release. We concluded that the release is strongly calcium-dependent and follows vesicular exocytosis model; in addition the striatal GABAergic subpopulation of neurons studied here undergo little influence of glutamatergic and cholinergic afferents. However, dopaminergic drugs complexly regulate striatal GABA release and it also shows high involvement of calmodulin. We wonder if some antipsychotic drugs that act over calmodulin owe their therapeutical effects, or at least part of it, to this activity and if in 6-OHDA unilateral lesion parkinsonism model there is communication between injuried and healthy hemispheres after the establishment of the injury and neuronal rearrangement process

This study examined the effects of chronic ethanol intake on the density, affinity, and allosteric modulation of rat brain GABAA receptor subtypes. In the presence of GABA, the apparent affinity for the benzodiazepine agonist flunitrazepam was increased and for the inverse agonist R015-4513 was decreased. No alteration in the capacity of GABA to modulate flunitrazepam and R015-4513 binding was observed in membranes prepared from cortex, hippocampus or cerebellum following chronic ethanol intake or withdrawal. The results also demonstrate two different binding sites for [3H]RO 15-4513 in rat cerebellum that differ in their affinities for diazepam. Chronic ethanol treatment and withdrawal did not significantly change the apparent affinity or density of these two receptor subtypes.

A number of studies have shown that sensory deprivation is associated with selective decreases in GABA, GAD, and GABA receptors, in deprived areas of visual and somatosensory cortex. Those studies focused on layer 4, a recipient of direct thalamocortical sensory input. However, supragranular layers 2/3 have been recently identified as a major locus of functional plasticity in sensory deprivation and long-term potentiation. To examine whether GABAA receptors in layers 2/3 are affected by sensory deprivation, rats had mystacial vibrissae in middle row C or rows ABDE trimmed for 6 weeks beginning in early adulthood. Layers 2/3 above the deprived and adjacent whisker barrels were located in tangential sections, using patterns of radial blood vessels as fiducial marks. In deprived whisker barrel columns, [3H]muscimol binding to GABAA receptors decreased by 12.8% ± 1.2 (P &lt; 0.001) in layers 2/3 and 11.4% ± 1.2 (P<0.001) in layer 4. Altered levels of GABAA α1 subunit (Fritschy et al., 1994) were indicated by reduced optical density of immunostaining, both in deprived layers 2/3 (6.4% ± 0.7; P&lt; 0.001) and in layer 4 (3.4% ± 1.0; P &lt; 0.005). Interestingly, Nissl staining density also decreased in deprived layers 2/3 (12.7% ± 1.8 P &lt; 0.001) and in 4 (6.0 ± 0.7 (P &lt; 0.001). The percent decreases were greater in layers 2/3 than in 4 for both GABAA α1 (P &lt; 0.05) and Nissl substance (P &lt; 0.005). The present results suggest that down-regulation in GABAA receptors may underlie the physiological signs of disinhibition observed in neurons of layer 2/3 and 4 in deprived whisker barrel columns.

The effects of the inhibitory neurotransmitters gammaamino butyric acid (GABA) and glycine were characterized on spontaneous activity recorded from mouse spinal cord cultures. The GABA concentration which completely inhibited burst activity was chosen as a quantifiable measure of culture drug response and was used to 1) assess interculture and intraculture variability, 2) determine the influence of culture age and initial activity on GABA responses, and 3) compare the GABA responses between networks obtained from whole spinal cord and ventral half spinal cord. Results showed that 1) no significant variability existed either within or among cultures, 2) the initial culture activity directly affected GABA responses, 3) the culture age had no effect on GABA responses, and 4) there was no significant difference in GABA responses between the two spinal cord tissues.

Whole-cell patch recordings were made from immature (six- to 12-day- old) rat rostral ventrolateral medulla neurons in brainstem slices. GABA or the specific GABA(B) receptor agonist (-)baclofen (10-50 μM) by superfusion or by pressure ejection induced an outward current or a hyperpolarization, which persisted in a tetrodotoxin (0.3 μM)-containing Krebs' solution in nearly every cell tested. The GABA(B) receptor antagonists 2-hydroxy saclofen (50-200 μM) and CGP 35348 (50-200 μM) dose-dependently suppressed baclofen- currents. Baclofen-currents were suppressed by barium (1 mM) but not by tetraethylammonium (20 mM), low Ca2+ (0.24 mM) solution or in a solution containing the Ca2+ chelator BAPTA-AM (10 μM). The outward current had an estimated reversal potential of -98, -77 and -52 mV in 3.1, 7 and 15 mM [K+](o). Pre-incubation of slices with pertussis toxin (500 μg/ml for 5-7 h) or intracellular dialysis with GDP-β-S (500 μM) markedly reduced baclofen-currents. Baclofen in low concentrations (1-3 μM) that caused slight or no change of holding currents and of inward or outward currents induced by exogenously applied glutamate or glycine/GABA, decreased excitatory and inhibitory postsynaptic currents by an average of 86.5 ± 4.3% and 78.4 ± 2.7%. The GABA(B) antagonist CGP 35348 (100 μM) increased the excitatory postsynaptic currents by an average of 64%, without causing a significant change in holding currents in 10/18 cells tested. Our results indicate the presence of post- and presynaptic GABA(B) receptors in the rostral ventrolateral medulla neurons. Activation of postsynaptic GABA(B) receptors induces an outward K+ current which is barium-sensitive, Ca2+- independent and may be coupled to a pertussis-sensitive G-protein. Activation of presynaptic GABA(B) receptors attenuates excitatory or inhibitory synaptic transmission. More importantly, the observation that CGP 35348 enhanced excitatory synaptic currents implies a removal of tonic activation of presynaptic GABA(B) receptors by endogenously released GABA (disinhibition), supporting the hypothesis that these receptors may have a physiological role in regulating the input and output ratio in a subset of rostral ventrolateral medulla neurons in vivo.

Activation of ventral tegmental area (VTA) dopaminergic (DA) neurons by ethanol has been implicated in the rewarding and reinforcing actions of ethanol. GABAergic transmission is thought to play an important role in regulating the activity of DA neurons. While at most central synapses ethanol generally increases inhibitory synaptic transmission, no studies have explored the effect of acute ethanol on GABAergic transmission in the VTA. Here we investigated how ethanol modulates GABAergic transmission in the VTA in relation to the overall action of ethanol on VTA-DA neuron activity. We demonstrated that ethanol dose-dependently enhances action potential-dependent and -independent GABA release onto VTA-DA neurons. Utilizing whole-cell voltage clamp recording techniques, ethanol increased both spontaneous and miniature inhibitory postsynaptic current (s/mIPSC) frequency while having minimal effect on s/mIPSC amplitude. The ethanol enhancement in GABA release was independent of GABAB auto-receptor inhibition of release. Intra-terminal calcium levels regulate neurotransmitter release, thus we investigated how modulation of calcium levels would affect the ethanol-enhancement in GABA release. Ethanol enhanced mIPSC frequency in the presence of the voltage-gated calcium channel blockers, cadmium chloride and nicardipine. However, blockade of intracellular calcium stores with 2-APB and cyclopiazonic acid eliminated the ethanol-enhancement of mIPSC frequency. Intracellular calcium stores are regulated via Gq protein-coupled receptors such as the 5-HT2C receptor. 5-HT2C receptor activation robustly enhanced mIPSC frequency whereas blockade inhibited the ethanol-enhancement in mIPSC frequency. These observations suggest that increased calcium release from intracellular stores via 5-HT2C receptor activation is involved in the ethanol-enhancement of GABA release onto VTA-DA neurons. Utilizing cell-attached current-clamp recordings, we demonstrated that the ethanol-enhancement of VTA-DA neuron activity is modulated by the concurrent enhancement in GABA release. Blockade and activation of GABAA receptors enhanced and reversed, respectively, the stimulatory effect of ethanol on VTA-DA neurons. Mu-opioid receptors (MORs) on GABAergic interneurons have been demonstrated to modulate both basal and ethanol-enhanced VTA-DA activity in vivo, though we failed to demonstrate such an effect in vitro. Overall, the results of this study suggest that the 5-HT2C receptor and intra-terminal calcium-dependent ethanol enhancement in GABA release acts to regulate the overall stimulatory effect of ethanol on VTA-DA activity. / text

No description available.

In this thesis, I describe the development of a novel method to selectively modulate neural activity cell-type selectively. Binding of Zolpidem, an allosteric modulator that enhances GABAa receptor function and the inverse agonist β-carboline, require a phenylalanine residue (F77) in the γ subunit.

In a study from 2011, the protein muskelin was described as a central coordinator of the retrograde transport of GABA(A) receptors in neurons. As muskelin governs the transport along actin filaments as well as microtubules, it might be the first representative of a novel class of regulators, which coordinate cargo transport across the borders of these two independent systems of transport paths and their associated motorproteins. To establish a basis for understanding the mode of operation of muskelin, the aim of this thesis was an in-depth biochemical and structural characterization of muskelin and its interaction with the GABA(A) receptor. One focus of the work was the analysis of the oligomerization of muskelin. As could be demonstrated, the oligomerization is based on two independent interactions mediated by different domains of the protein: a known interaction of the N-terminal discoidin domain with the C-terminal portion, termed head-to-tail interaction, and a dimerization of the LisH motif in muskelin that was so far neglected in the literature. For the detailed studies of both binding events, the solution of a crystal structure of a fragment of muskelin, comprising the Discoidin domain and the LisH motif, was an important basis. The fragment crystallized as a dimer, with dimerization being mediated solely by the LisH motif. Biochemical analysis corroborated that the LisH motif in muskelin serves as a dimerization element, and, moreover, showed that the C-terminal domain of the protein substantially stabilizes this dimerization. In addition, the crystal structure revealed the molecular composition of the surface of the head in the head-to-tail interaction, namely the discoidin domain. This information enabled to map the amino acids contributing to binding, which showed that the binding site of the head-to-tail interaction coincides with the generic ligand binding site of the discoidin domain. As part of the analyses, residues that are critical for LisH-dimerization and the head-to-tail binding, respectively, were identified, whose mutation specifically interfered with each of the interactions separately. These mutations allowed to investigate the interplay of these interactions during oligomerization. It could be shown that recombinant muskelin assembles into a tetramer to which both interactions, the LisH-dimerization and the head-to-tail binding, contribute independently. When one of the two interactions was disturbed, only a dimer mediated via the respective other interaction could be formed; when both interactions were disturbed, the protein was present as monomer. Furthermore, Frank Heisler in the group of Matthias Kneussel was able to show the drastic impact of an impaired LisH-dimerization on muskelin in cells using these mutations. Disturbing the LisH-dimerization led to a complete redistribution of the originally cytoplasmic muskelin to the nucleus which was accompanied by a severe impairment of its function during GABA(A) receptor transport. Following up on these results in an analysis of muskelin variants, for which alterations of the subcellular localization had been published earlier, the crucial influence of LisH-dimerization to the subcellular localization and thereby the role of muskelin in the cell was confirmed. The biochemical studies of the interaction of muskelin and the alpha1 subunit of the GABA(A) receptor demonstrated a direct binding with an affinity in the low micromolar range, which is mediated primarily by the kelch repeat domain in muskelin. For the binding site on the GABA(A) receptor, it was confirmed that the thirteen most C-terminal residues of the intracellular domain are critical for the binding of muskelin. In accordance with the strong conservation of these residues among the alpha subunits of the GABA(A) receptor, it could be shown that an interaction with muskelin in vitro is also possible for the alpha2 and alpha5 subunits. Based on the comparison of the binding sites between the homologous subunits, tentative conclusions can be drawn about the details of the binding, which may serve as a starting point for follow-up studies. This thesis thereby makes valuable contributions to the understanding of muskelin, in particular the significance of its oligomerization. It furthermore provides an experimental framework for future studies that address related topics, such as the characterization of other muskelin interaction partners, or the questions raised in this work. / Das Protein Muskelin wurde in einer Studie aus dem Jahr 2011 als zentraler Koordinator des retrograden Transports von GABA(A)-Rezeptoren in Neuronen beschrieben. Da Muskelin den Transport des Rezeptors sowohl entlang von Aktinfilamenten als auch Mikrotubuli steuert, könnte es der erste bekannte Vertreter einer neuen Klasse von Regulatoren sein, die den Transport einer Fracht über die Grenzen dieser beiden unabhängigen Systeme von Transportwegen und der damit assoziierten Motorproteine hinweg koordinieren. Um Grundlagen für das Verständnis der Wirkungsweise von Muskelin zu schaffen, war das Ziel dieser Arbeit die biochemische und strukturelle Charakterisierung von Muskelin und seiner Interaktion mit dem GABA(A)-Rezeptor. Ein Schwerpunkt der Arbeit lag dabei auf der Analyse der Oligomerisierung von Muskelin. Wie gezeigt werden konnte, beruht die Oligomerisierung auf zwei unabhängigen, von verschiedenen Domänen des Proteins vermittelten Bindungen: zum Einen auf einer bereits bekannten Wechselwirkung der N-terminalen Discoidin-Domäne und des C-terminalen Teils (anschaulich als Head-to-tail, englisch für Kopf-an-Schwanz, bezeichnet), zum Anderen auf einer in der Literatur bisher außer Acht gelassenen Dimerisierung des LisH-Motivs in Muskelin. Für die detaillierten Studien beider Bindungen lieferte die Aufklärung der Kristallstruktur eines Teilstücks von Muskelin, das die Discoidin-Domäne und das LisH-Motiv umfasst, eine wichtige Grundlage. Das Teilstück kristallisierte als Dimer, wobei die Dimerisierung ausschließlich über das LisH-Motiv vermittelt wurde. Die biochemischen Analysen bestätigten, dass das LisH-Motiv in Muskelin als Dimerisierungselement wirkt, und zeigten darüber hinaus, dass die C-terminale Domäne des Proteins diese Dimerisierung wesentlich stabilisiert. Zudem offenbarte die Kristallstruktur den molekularen Aufbau der Oberfläche des Kopfes in der Head-to-tail-Bindung, der Discoidin-Domäne. Die Kartierung der zur Bindung beitragenden Aminosäuren belegte, dass die Bindungsstelle der Head-to-tail-Interaktion mit der generischen Ligandenbindungsstelle der Discoidin-Domäne zusammenfällt. Als Teil der Analysen wurden zur LisH-Dimerisierung oder zur Head-to-tail-Bindung kritisch beitragende Aminosäurenseitenketten identifiziert, durch deren Mutationen Ispezifisch jeweils eine der beiden Interaktionen unterbunden werden konnte. Diese Mutationen ermöglichten es, das Zusammenspiel der Bindungen in der Oligomerisierung zu untersuchen. Es konnte gezeigt werden, dass rekombinantes Muskelin ein Tetramer bildet, wozu beide Interaktionen, die LisH-Dimerisierung und die Head-to-tail-Bindung, unabhängig beitragen. Wurde jeweils eine der beiden Interaktionen durch Mutation gestört, konnte nur noch ein über die jeweils andere Interaktion vermitteltes Dimer gebildet werden, bei gleichzeitiger Störung beider Interaktionen lag das Protein als Monomer vor. Darüber hinaus konnte Frank Heisler in der Arbeitsgruppe von Matthias Kneussel mit Hilfe dieser Mutationen zeigen, dass eine Störung der LisH-Dimerisierung drastische Auswirkungen auf Muskelin in Zellen hat. Die Störung der LisH-Dimerisierung führte zu einer vollständigen Umverteilung des sonst im Zytoplasma lokalisierten Muskelins in den Kern, begleitet von einer starken Beeinträchtigung seiner Funktion im Transport des GABA(A)-Rezeptors. Auf diesen Ergebnissen aufbauend wurde durch Analysen der oligomeren Zustände von Muskelin-Varianten, für die in der Literatur eine veränderte Lokalisation beschrieben worden war, die entscheidende Bedeutung der LisH-Dimerisierung für die subzelluläre Verteilung und damit die Rolle von Muskelin in der Zelle bekräftigt. Die biochemischen Studien der Interaktion von Muskelin und der alpha1-Untereinheit des GABA(A)-Rezeptors demonstrierten eine direkte Bindung mit mikromolarer Affinität, die in Muskelin vorwiegend durch die Kelch-repeat-Domäne vermittelt wird. Für die Bindungsstelle auf Seite des GABA(A)-Rezeptors wurde bestätigt, dass die dreizehn C-terminalen Reste der intrazellulären Domäne entscheidend sind. In Übereinstimmung mit der starken Konservierung dieser Reste in verschiedenen alpha-Untereinheiten des GABA(A)-Rezeptors, konnte gezeigt werden, dass in vitro eine Bindung von Muskelin auch an die intrazelluläre Domäne der alpha2- und alpha5-Untereinheit möglich ist. Anhand des Vergleichs der Bindungsstelle zwischen den homologen Untereinheiten lassen sich erste Rückschlüsse auf die Details der Interaktion ziehen, die als Anknüpfungspunkt für kommende Studien dienen können. Diese Arbeit liefert damit wesentliche Beiträge zum Verständnis von Muskelin, insbesondere der Bedeutung seiner Oligomerisierung. Sie bietet zudem ein experimentelles Rahmenwerk für zukünftige Studien, die sich verwandten Themen, wie der Charakterisierung weiterer Interaktionen von Muskelin, oder den in dieser Arbeit aufgeworfenen Fragen widmen.

Rationale: Lead-exposure during developmental periods may alter reinforcing patterns of drugs of abuse in adulthood. Anxiety related mechanisms may also influence drug intake. Interactions between the two altering factors may exist. Objectives: The present study examined the effects of perinatal lead-exposure on cocaine self-administration after a GABAA antagonist pre-treatment. Methods: Female rats were exposed to a regimen of 16 mg lead daily for 30 days prior to breeding with un-exposed males. This continued throughout gestation and lactation until postnatal day (PND) 21. On PND 63, animals were implanted with indwelling jugular catheters. After a 7 day recovery period, animals were trained to self-administer 0.50 mg/kg cocaine intravenously [IV]. After stable responding had been established, testing procedures began using combinations of 0.03 and 0.06 mg/kg cocaine [IV] and 0.00, 0.50, 1.00 and 2.00 mg/kg bicuculline (a GABAA antagonist) intraperitoneal [IP]. Results: Bicuculline pre-treatment caused directionally opposite effects in both treatment groups (Group 0-Lead and Group 16-Lead) at the 0.06 mg/kg cocaine dose. Group 0-Lead animals showed an increase in self-administration, while Group 16-Lead animals showed a decrease in responding on the active (cocaine) lever. Results at the 0.03 mg/kg cocaine dose showed no discernable pattern. Group 0-Lead animals decreased in active lever responding at the 2.00 mg/kg bicuculline dose. Group 16-Lead animals showed no differences in responding at any dose of bicuculline. Conclusions: These data further suggest the influential role of GABA in mediating cocaine reward and the ability of developmental lead-exposure to alter mechanisms mediating drug responsiveness even after exposure has terminated.