A founder population of lion (Panthera Leo) was introduced into a 70 km² privately-owned, wildlife reserve in the Waterberg area of South Africa. The lion and prey species' populations were monitored between 2001 and 2004. In this period, 452 kills were recorded at a mean kill rate of one kill every 2.43 days. The lions killed 11 common prey species. Eland, warthog, kudu, wildebeest and zebra comprised 75 % of the lion's diet. The lions consumed an average of 8 % of the available common prey species population per annum. Initially, the mean ungulate population growth rate was 30.9 %, but this rate declined to -0.8 % during the study period. Significantly more animals were killed in open habitats than in closed habitats. The loss in game value for the study period was over one million Rand. A formula was compiled to quantify the cost versus return aspects of introducing lion. / Nature Conservation / M. Tech. (Nature Conservation)

Thesis (M.Tech.: Information Technology)-Durban Institute of Technology, 2005 iii, iii, 85 leaves / Throughout Africa, growing human populations and resulting loss of wildlife habitat is a critical issue for most animal species. It is more and more common for privately owned small or medium sized farms to reintroduce wildlife on their land and such protected areas are fast becoming the only refuges available to wild animals. However a comprehensive understanding of the complex ecological processes taking place is vital for the effective management of restricted areas and the conservation of biodiversity. Due to the enormous complexity of an ecological system and the long periods of the related dynamics, it is very difficult to analyse the interaction between animals and plant populations without suitable computer models. In this thesis, the dynamics between elephant and trees (a major food source) are considered using computer simulations.

A thesis submitted to the Faculty of Science, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, in fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science. / This work describes the coastal grasslands of Mkambati Game Reserve and their suitability for the present large herbivore complement. The initial description makes use of both field survey and quantitative sampling and multivariate analysis which facilitated the production of soil and vegetation maps at tre scale of 1: 10 000. Suitability of these grasslands for herbivores is assessed in terms of both quantity and quality of food available and the present herbivore impact. Local variation in soil type was considerable. Eight standard soil forms were distinguished as well as severaI others previously undescribed. Most of the soils were dystrophic although nutrient 'hot-spots' were common. This determined floristic composition of the various communities to some extent. Three grassland communities and four subcommunities were recognized which contributed 81, 5% to the total area of the reserve. The remaining area comprised forest. wetlands. exposed rock and accommodation camps. Each grassland community was associated with particular ranges of the measured environmental variables. The standing crop of the three communities was high relative to other areas of Southern Africa. Absolute amounts varied seasonally being highest in summer and lowest in winter Partitioning between the phytomass, necromass and litter components also varied seasonally. Total standing crop increased with increasing interval since the last fire. Litter breakdown rates differed between communities and species. Forage quality was poor being lowest in autumn and winter and declining with age. This was probably a result of the dystrophic soils. Crude protein and phosphorus were limiting for several months of the year. Total forage quantity was in excess of the present herbivore needs although availability declined with age and during the non-growing season. However, the poor quality reduced the amount available such that present herbivore impact was low, at all times being less than 9%.. Removal by herbivores was highest several months after a fire when absolute amounts of various nutrients were at a maxinum per unit area. Thereafter it declined to less than 1% with aging of the sward. The implications of the results for management are discussed and future research needs identified. / AC 2018

Thesis (M.Tech.: Information Technology)-Durban Institute of Technology, 2005 iii, iii, 85 leaves / Throughout Africa, growing human populations and resulting loss of wildlife habitat is a critical issue for most animal species. It is more and more common for privately owned small or medium sized farms to reintroduce wildlife on their land and such protected areas are fast becoming the only refuges available to wild animals. However a comprehensive understanding of the complex ecological processes taking place is vital for the effective management of restricted areas and the conservation of biodiversity. Due to the enormous complexity of an ecological system and the long periods of the related dynamics, it is very difficult to analyse the interaction between animals and plant populations without suitable computer models. In this thesis, the dynamics between elephant and trees (a major food source) are considered using computer simulations.

Imperfect information on aspects of biodiversity conservation will constrain the extent to which tourists’ preferences for biodiversity conservation are revealed in game reserve (GR) tariffs, reducing the incentive for tourism businesses to invest in biodiversity conservation. Accreditation is an institutional approach to addressing the issue of imperfect information on biodiversity conservation. In this study, Choice Experiments (CE) and the Contingent Valuation Method (CVM) are used to estimate tourist’s willingness-to-pay (WTP) to visit biodiversity conservation accredited terrestrial nature-based tourism (NBT) destinations in selected areas of South Africa (SA). A survey of 97 domestic tourists and 96 foreign tourists was conducted at 16 private and public GR camps in north-eastern KwaZulu-Natal (NEKZN) and Mpumalanga/Limpopo Provinces (MP/LP) during October and November 2004. The survey captured socio-economic data to be used in discriminating between market segments, eighteen hypothetical CE questions and a CVM question. Analyses comparing the preferences of domestic tourists from foreign tourists, tourists visiting NEKZN from tourists visiting MP/LP and tourists visiting private GRs from tourists visiting public GRs were performed. In addition, Hierarchical Cluster Analysis (HCA) was used to identify groups of tourists with similar preferences. Respondents are grouped into three market segments according to their revealed preferences using HCA. Linear Discriminant Analysis (LDA) was used to discriminate the three groups based on socio-economic characteristics. These groups were named “Conservation Vacationers”, “Incidental Sightseers” and “Big 5 Brigade” based on socioeconomic characteristics unique to each group. The region (NEKZN or MP/LP), level of education and itinerary (independent travellers or part of tour group) were the most powerful in discriminating “Big 5 Brigade” from the other two groups in the first function. The second function primarily discriminates Conservation Vacationers from Incidental Sightseers based on membership to a wildlife society, gender and education. Results of the CE and CVM studies respectively, indicate that, overall, respondents were willing to pay premiums of R114.41 and R87.67 per person per night (all premiums are presented as per person per night, unless otherwise stated) to stay at a GR accredited with having a high standard of biodiversity conservation. Foreign tourists were, on average, willing to pay the highest premium of R136.35 for biodiversity conservation accreditation, while tourists visiting private GRs were, on average, willing to pay the lowest premium of R 96.42. A further three market segments were identified using HCA. The average WTP estimates for biodiversity conservation accreditation for Groups 1(Conservation Vacationer), 2(Incidental Sightseer) and 3(Big 5 Brigade), identified by HCA were R171.41, R66.15 and R14.94, respectively. On average, respondents in all groups, game-viewing quality was most highly valued, followed by the level of congestion. Results of this study may be useful to NBT operators and managers in developing marketing strategies targeting specific market segments. Analysis of the results by market segments indicates that CE may be a more reliable technique than CVM. Further research on the costs and benefits of biodiversity conservation accreditation is necessary to predict the extent to which NBT businesses are likely to adopt biodiversity conservation accreditation. / Thesis (M.Agric.Man.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2007.

This Research investigates the potential impacts that free-ranging lions have within a small (<100 000 hectare), enclosed protected area, and it also investigates the subsequent challenges to the managers of areas such as these. A comprehensive literature review reveals that the smaller the protected area, the more intensively it needs to be managed via active adaptive management, because perimeter fences do not allow for immigration and emigration. The consequences of this are over-population; inbreeding depression; the decline of prey and other predator species; conflict with neighbouring communities as a result of break-outs; and, in some cases, the spreading of intra- and interspecies disease. Lions are very proficient breeders and, in all cases investigated, reserves exceeded their local carrying capacity within a relatively short period of time. A range of management interventions can potentially achieve short- and/or long-term reserve objectives. These interventions include relocation, contraception, hunting and artificial takeovers. These interventions are described in terms of the preparation required, the biological consequences and the sociological influences. / Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2007.

In recent years several regions in South Africa including KwaZulu-Natal (KZN) have experienced a significant shift in their farming practice, moving away from conventional commercial farming to the apparently more lucrative private game farming. This is clearly evident in the northern parts of KZN, where most Private Game Reserves (PGRs) occur in semi-arid areas, which are poorly suited to agriculture or livestock farming. These conversions of land cover or change in land use (i.e. from conventional commercial farming to private game farming) is occurring fairly swiftly even though the extent (area of change), impacts and implications of this trend have not been established. Very limited scientific research has been carried out on the environmental effects, impacts and implications of these land cover/use changes related to PGRs. In an attempt to document these changes as well as the environmental implications, three PGRs i.e. Kube Yini, Thanda and Phinda and the Mkhuze Game Reserve within northern KZN were selected for in-depth study. Mkhuze, which is owned and managed by the state, was selected as the control for this study, as it has remained relatively undisturbed for a long period of time. A comparison between the PGRs and Mkhuze was carried out to compare the land cover/use changes within the study area since the establishment of the PGRs. Remote sensing software was used to achieve the aim and objectives of this study. Using satellite images from 1990 and 2007, a change detection analysis was performed to determine the land cover/use changes that occurred within the study area during the period 1990-2007. Sixty-four land cover/use classes were generated from the analysis. These sixty-four classes were reclassified into five broad land cover/use classes which were identified as (1) water and riverine vegetation, (2) sand forest, forest and rock faces, (3) woodlands, (4) old fields and disturbed areas, (5) and grasslands. The results illustrated that during the period 1990 to 2007, the land cover/use of the entire study area changed significantly, with the overall land cover/use changes illustrating a decrease in the water bodies and riverine vegetation (6 percent to 3 percent); sand forest, forest and rock faces (19 percent to 16 percent); woodlands (26 percent to 25 percent); and old fields and disturbed areas (26 percent to 25 percent) whilst an increase in the grasslands (23 percent to 31 percent) was evident. Within each individual PGR, significant land cover/use changes related to private game farming were evident. In Kube Yini PGR, a decrease in the water bodies and riverine vegetation (4 percent to 1 percent); old fields and disturbed areas (23 percent to 11 percent); and grasslands (6 percent to 5 percent) were observed whilst an increase in the sand forest, forest and rock faces (31 percent to 47 percent); and grasslands (6 percent to 5 percent) land covers were seen. There has been no change in the woodlands cover (i.e. remains 36 percent). Old fields and disturbed areas have decreased due to the clearing programme that was implemented by Kube Yini, which has also contributed to the increased sand forest, forest and rock faces; and grassland land covers. At Thanda PGR, water bodies and riverine vegetation remained the same overall, while an increase in the grasslands cover (19 percent to 49 percent) was clearly evident. A decrease in the sand forest, forest and rock faces (13 percent to 4 percent); woodlands (29 percent to 18 percent); and old fields and disturbed areas (38 percent to 28 percent) was also noted. This was due to Thanda‟s Management Plan, whereby management had cleared the old fields and disturbed areas to accommodate the increased tourist accommodation, increased game species as well as the increased space that is required for these species. Furthermore over the recent years, Thanda has been practicing bush clearing and thinning of vegetation, which has resulted in the creation of a grassland landscape. A grassland landscape was required for viewing the game species, which resulted in a decreased sand forest, forest and rock faces; woodlands; and old fields and disturbed areas. In Phinda too, the water bodies and riverine vegetation remained the same (i.e. 1 percent). The sand forest, forest and rock faces (32 percent to 19 percent); and woodlands (43 percent to 41 percent) decreased whilst an increased old fields and disturbed areas (15 percent to 26 percent); and grasslands (9 percent to 13 percent) were observed. Sand forests are sensitive and decrease in extent rather easily as a result of disturbances experienced in the area. The decrease in sand forest, forest and rock faces during this period may be due to the increased wildlife and especially elephant population experienced on this reserve. The woodlands land cover decreased in size as a result of clearing to accommodate tourist infrastructure as well as creating a grassland landscape i.e. open space and clear viewing for the game species. The changes in Phinda‟s land cover resulted can be explained by the different management practices that were practised on the reserve. The results from the PGRs were compared against Mkhuze so as to determine whether private game faming was in fact changing the landscape of the study area. During this period 1990 to 2007, Mkhuze experienced only slight changes within it‟s land cover/use classes: water and riverine vegetation (2 percent to 1 percent); sand forest, forest and rock faces (16 percent to 15 percent); and grasslands (29 percent to 26 percent) decreased whilst an increase in the woodlands (27 percent to 30 percent); and old fields and disturbed areas (26 percent to 28 percent) were noted. Since Mkhuze is managed by the state with its priority being conservation first and not increased monetary gain, competition between species and habitants occurred with the least amount of human influence. It is most likely that the water and riverine vegetation; and grasslands decreased due to the drought experienced in the area between 2001-2006, which may have led to the increased old fields and disturbed areas. In addition woodlands may have increased due to its resistance to harsh conditions. Also contributing to the increased old fields and disturbed areas could be the increased wildlife numbers experienced in the reserve. The slight drop in the sand forest, forest and rock faces land cover most likely resulted due to natural competition between the vegetation species as well as management realising the significance of the sand forest, thus assisting in the preservation of the sand forest, forest and rock faces cover. An accuracy assessment was carried out to determine the accuracy of the image classification, and a 75 % accuracy was achieved for the overall analysis. The results illustrate that during the period 1990-2007, the study area‟s land cover changed significantly and that this was mostly like due to the changes within the land cover of the individual PGRs. Climatic data for this period was also taken into consideration to see whether climate variations had occurred and whether this had impacted the change in land cover/use of the study area. The results from the PGRs were compared against the state reserve results as well as the climatic data. The results suggest that the majority of the land cover/use changes within the study area had occurred largely due to private game farming rather than natural processes. The climatic variables such as temperature of the area remained fairly unchanged whilst humidity remained fairly high. With the exception of the drought experienced in the area between the period 2001-2006, it is most likely that the changes in the area are the result of the change to private game farming. Private game farming is having a significant effect on the landscape of the study area and this is largely due to the different management practices practised on each individual PGR. It is recommended that PGRs be monitored and regulated consistently in order to prevent the degradation of the environment and its ecosystem. The study exhibits the value and usefulness of satellite imagery in detecting land cover/use changes related to private game farming. Landsat 5 TM imagery was the most suitable and accurate in identifying and mapping broad scale land cover/use changes related to private game farming. If a more detailed level of investigation is required, the use of higher resolution imagery (e.g. Spot/Landsat 7) is advised. / Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Westville, 2010.

A founder population of lion (Panthera Leo) was introduced into a 70 km² privately-owned, wildlife reserve in the Waterberg area of South Africa. The lion and prey species' populations were monitored between 2001 and 2004. In this period, 452 kills were recorded at a mean kill rate of one kill every 2.43 days. The lions killed 11 common prey species. Eland, warthog, kudu, wildebeest and zebra comprised 75 % of the lion's diet. The lions consumed an average of 8 % of the available common prey species population per annum. Initially, the mean ungulate population growth rate was 30.9 %, but this rate declined to -0.8 % during the study period. Significantly more animals were killed in open habitats than in closed habitats. The loss in game value for the study period was over one million Rand. A formula was compiled to quantify the cost versus return aspects of introducing lion. / Nature Conservation / M. Tech. (Nature Conservation)

Over the past fifteen years there has been an extensive conversion of land use from traditional farming practices to conservation and private game reserves. It has been suggested by Langholz and Kerley (2006:2) that privately owned preserved areas can engage in ecotourism initiatives by protecting biodiversity, succeeding financially and contributing to social upliftment. However, ecotourism has to operate within the context of historical land dispossession of the majority black population and current land reform initiatives to address this problem. In view of the economic, social and environmental importance of ecotourism based private game reserves (PGRs) in South Africa, particularly the Eastern Cape, the main goal of this research is to examine the Indalo association of private game reserves in the Eastern Cape Province’s development model for ex-farmworkers and adjacent communities. This was done through a literature survey and analysis of existing studies and by interviewing the managers of the Indalo PGRs and a few farmworkers to get their opinions of the tension between what they are doing and the imperatives of land reform. This involved an exploration of their community development work, particularly around issues of job creation, participation in decision-making, capacity building and sustainability. The thesis comes to the following conclusions. The first is that the establishment of PGRs have a significant positive impact on the local areas in which they are established. As a land-use, ecotourism based game reserves are an economically and ecologically desirable alternative to other land uses. Therefore the ecotourism based private game reserve industry with its extensive community development focus for farmworkers and local communities is a viable and sustainable alternative to conventional land reform. The second is that the Indalo PGRs development work has built capacity in the communities it has served. However, community participation, particularly in decision-making is limited and needs more attention if productive and sustainable development is to be achieved. Lastly, communities rely heavily on external support for their development and upliftment. However, the majority of the PGRs have/or are putting measures in place to ensure the continuation of community development projects to ensure the long-term sustainability of projects.

The reintroduction of lions, cheetahs and African wild dogs to Kwandwe Private Game Reserve in the Eastern Cape Province of South Africa created the opportunity to study the biology and behaviour of these large carnivores in an enclosed system. The research focused on space utilisation and feeding ecology of the predators, using standard observational methods. Changes in the structure of the carnivore guild, and changes in the prey base that occurred during the study were used as natural experiments to examine factors affecting space use and diet. In general, the diets of the predators were similar to previous studies and prey abundance was more important than prey species size in determining prey selection. Changes in the abundance of certain prey species was matched by a dietary switch in lions from kudu to warthog and an increase in the proportion of springbok kills by the cheetahs. There was no significant difference in the proportions of prey species detected by ad hoc or continuous observations. Core areas occupied by the predators were significantly smaller than home ranges except when females were denning. Home ranges overlapped both within and between species, but there was very little overlap of core areas. An increase in the number of lion prides in the area during the study resulted in an increase in overlap of home ranges of lions and cheetahs, but did not result in a change in home range size. Space use by female cheetahs with cubs increased as the cubs grew older. The use of thicket vegetation by cheetahs decreased with an increase in the number of lion prides. Minimum Daily Energy Expenditure, energy intake and net benefit were calculated for the predators using data from continuous observations. All predators exhibited a large net benefit and the net benefit for single female cheetahs was greater than for the members of the coalition. Net benefit for the alpha pair of African wild dogs was lower than that of the pack.