A thesis submitted in fulfillment of the requirements of the degree of Doctor of phisophy in the Faculty of Arts, in the Department of IsiZulu naMagugu at the University of Zululand, South Africa, 2005. / Lolu cwaningo IwethuIa ingqikithi yomlando ngemveIaphi yamagama okuqanjwe ngawo izindawo ezingaphakathi esiqiwini saseffiuhIuwe - Urnfolozi. Isahluko sokuqaIa siqukethe isethulo socwaningo jikelele. Lesi sahIuko simumethe isingeniso socwaningo .Siqukethe nentshisekelo yocwaningo okuyiyona evuse ivuso nesidingo sokuba kuthundIazwe Ie nyathuko . Sibuka izinhIosongqangi zawo wonke 10 msebenzi, Kubukwa izindlela zokuqhuba ucwaningo kanye nemidiyo yakhona nhlangothi zonkana Isipikili sibethelwe ngalabo abazohIomuIa kuIolu cwaningo kanye naIaboasebeke baphosa itshe esivivaneni. Isahluko sesibili sigxiIe kumveIaphi yamagama jikelele . lsisekelo sakho konke okukuIesi sahIuko sisemithethweni eyahIukehIukene yokulotshwa kwamagama ezilimi ngezilimi Lezo zilimi zithinta isiBhunu , isiDashi, isiNgisi, ezaBathwa kanye nezaboMdabu . Lesi sahluko sewukela nasokhaIweni Iongqondongqondo nongoti kwezokuqanjwa kwamagama lsahIuko sesithathu sibIaziya imvelaphi yamagama asesiqiwini saseffiuhIuwe uvtfolozi . La magama ahIaziywa esuswa emthonjeni womlando ngokufika kwabantu bengabade ezimfundeni zeMfolozi kanye nokuzalwa kwesiqiwu uqobo Iwaso.Ngokweqiniso lesi siqiwu saseffiuhIuwe sidala kunazo zonke iziqiwu ezikhona lapha kweiakwaMthaniya . Isiqiwu saseffiuhImve sasunguIwa ngonyaka we - 1894. Lesi siqiwu sasibubanzi obtmgamahekma ayizinkuIungwane ezingamashumi amabili • nantathu (23 000 ha). Kuze kwaba ngunyaka we -1990 Iapho lesi siqiwu sibIanganiswa nesaseMfolozi esasibubanzi base babungamahektha ayizinkuIungwane ezingamashumi ayisikhombisa nantathu (73 000 ha), Sezihlanganisiwe zibe sezakha amahektha ayizinkulungwane ezingamashumi ayisishiyagalolunye nesithupha (96 000 ha). Lezi ziqiwu zenganyelwe ngabongi bezemvelo ngaphansi kwe:t'<'hIangano okuthiwa Ezemvelo. Isahfuko sesine sigxile kuliso elinzulu Iengabade ngemvelo endaweni ethintekayo okuyisiqiwu saseHIuhIuwe - Umfolozi . Iso IesiNtu Iijule ngobunjalo bendawo nemvelo okuphatha uknjula,ukuphakama , amawathanga , amawa , imifula , izingoxi , imithi , amatshe , amanzi , ilanga , inyanga , izinyoni , iziIwane , izimvuIa , izimpi , izifo , imibala nokunye okuningi, Konke Iokhu kucacisa ngokuthe bha ngokungathekisa nokufanisa kwesintu ngezindlela ezahlukahlukene, Kouke Iokhu kuzinze enjuleni nengqikithi abantu bendabuko abalabalabela ukuba iklezwe iphindelelwe ngisho umpheblu yimiznkulu yezizukulwane ngezizukulwane zesizwe kanye nezomb1abajikelele. Isahluko .sesiblanu sijula ngokhaIo Iokublaziywa kocwaningo jikelele . Lapha kucofiywa ngononina ukusuka nokuhlala komsebenzi wengqikithi nomongo wala magama akulesi siqiwu. Ngaphezn kwalokho kwethulwa izincomo jikelele ngokuphathwa ngobumnene nangezandla zozibili kwamagugu engabade kuble kwezikhali zamaNtungwa Ekugcineni kwalo msebenzi ojule ngokwedlulele u1.'UZe ube isivivane nobani nobani ayolangazelela ukuphonsa kuso )tshe qede sibe ngumfelandawonye wesimakade.

Ecological monitoring is an integral part of the ecological active adaptive management of wildlife reserves. The present study was conducted as an initial trial of a holistic ecological monitoring programme for Mabula Game Reserve using three existing survey methods. The information gained after each monitoring period and relevant management decisions are: <ul> <li> Large herbivore monitoring: This monitoring system gave specific information on which vegetation community each of the types of large herbivores are utilising and selecting. This information was used in conjunction with the two vegetation monitoring systems and the wildlife count data to determine the stocking rate for each large herbivores on the reserve. If required, the populations can be increase or decreased, which was found to be necessary for browsers on Mabula Game Reserve.</li> <li> Herbaceous monitoring: This monitoring system provides information on the economic and ecological grazing capacity of the individual vegetation communities in terms of Grazing Units. The herbivore monitoring provides an estimation of the actual Grazing Units occurring in a vegetation community. The total stocking rate should be less than the economic grazing capacity (70% of the ecological grazing capacity).</li> <li> Woody monitoring: This monitoring system provides information on the economic and ecological browsing capacity of the individual vegetation communities in terms of Browser Units. The herbivore monitoring provides an estimation of the stocking rate of browsers occurring in a vegetation community, which should be less than the economic grazing capacity (70% of the cological grazing capacity).</li> </ul> The combination of all the results from the three survey methods provided information on the stocking rates for the different types of herbivores, which will ensure optimal wildlife production without diminishing the condition of the vegetation on the reserve. Long-term monitoring will enable the establishment of a large database which can be used to assess the ecological dynamics of the components covered in the holistic monitoring system over time. Changes in habitat selection of the large herbivore can be observed and patterns can be determined in relation to environmental variables such as rainfall. The long-term monitoring of the vegetations layers will provide information on changes in the plant species composition and the structure of the vegetation communities. This information can then be compared to the habitat selection of the large herbivore species and other environmental influence to gain information to help in the determining the cause of any observed changes. Copyright / Dissertation (MSc)--University of Pretoria, 2010. / Animal and Wildlife Sciences / unrestricted

With the purpose of improving the conservation management of Ithala Game Reserve and other similar reserves, the aims of this study were to determine the reserve's large mammalian herbivores' habitat occupancy, numbers and demographics, to investigate the feasibility of road strip counts as a census method for the same herbivores and to establish what environmental factors influence their habitat occupancy, numbers and demographics. Four years of demographic data were collected by vehicle transects on giraffe, kudu, wildebeest and impala. During the final two years additional positional data, using GPS, were collected on these and the reserve's other large herbivores. Sightings were recorded on the basis of habitat type occupied, a GIS was then used to define area sampled and hence derive habitat occupancy densities. GIS was further used to determine both absolute population sizes and, by over-laying other available GIS data, the relevance of distance to surface water, soil type and degree of slope to species' habitat preferences. Species showed non-random, significant habitat selections broadly in line with established preferences. Deterioration in habitat quality in winter generally lead to changes in habitat selection and the extent and nature of these changes related to the severity of resource pressure for individual species. This in turn was influenced by the species digestive strategy i.e. ruminant versus non-ruminant, grazer versus browser. Generally species showed a dry season move down the slope, moving, in some cases, onto heavier soils. Hartebeest, warthog, wildebeest and impala were strongly attracted to winter grass flushes. Lack of predation may be influencing the habitat selection decisions of impala and giraffe and kudu females, as well as allowing giraffe, wildebeest and impala to attain comparatively high densities. Giraffe density (effectively 1.8 km - 2) was abnormally high and their habitat quality poor, leading to a decline in numbers and low fecundity-related demographics. Wildebeest density (6 km -2) was also abnormally high and this may be instrumental in the poor performance of the rare tsessebe population, which is in decline and shows low fecundity-related demo graphics, increased dry season pressure on other grazers in general and impala 111 unexpectedly preferring browse habitats, rather than grasslands, in the wet season. Wildebeest fecundity declined in response to lower rainfall over the early period of lactation. Herbivores with an open social structure generally showed a dry season decrease in group size, although wildebeest and hartebeest showed, atypically, an Increase. Giraffe, zebra and impala adult sex ratios were comparatively less female biased, probably due to minimal predation. Territorial behaviour, virtually year round by wildebeest bulls and over the rut by impala bulls, imposed spatial sexual segregation between breeding and bachelor herds in these species. Outside of these periods, and generally in species not exhibiting territoriality, social sexual segregation was maintained and appeared to relate to differing activity budgets. Areas of concern for management are highlighted. Numbers results were generally acceptable and the method is proposed as a cost effective alternative in reserves with diverse topography. Underlying environmental determinants of habitat occupancy, numbers and demographics, together with associated annual or seasonal changes, were habitat quality, competition and predation. / Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, 2005.

Two management blocks were set aside in Umfolozi Game Reserve (UGR) to compare different management approaches. In one, the non-cull block, a noninterventionist policy was followed and no large mammals were removed, while the other, the cull block was subjected to the same game removal treatment as the remainder of the reserve. The main objectives of this study were to determine the relationships between vegetation, soil surface variables and both soil loss and rainfall run-off, to derive predictive models for run-off and soil loss based on vegetation and soil surface variables, to determine the relationship between different levels of soil erosion and the production potential of soils, and to determine the relationship between different levels of soil erosion and herbaceous species diversity. Rainfall simulator trials and natural run-off plots were used to collect quantitative data on soil loss and run-off. Bivariate scattergrams showed that the relationship between soil surface and vegetation variables plotted against soil loss was curvilinear. "Susceptibility to erosion" showed the highest positive correlation, and "surface cover" the highest negative correlation with soil loss. The relationship between annual run-off and both the soil surface and vegetation variables was also curvilinear, with "soil capping" showing the highest positive and "litter cover" the highest negative correlation with run-off. Using multiple regression analysis it was found that "susceptibility to erosion" and predictors of annual soil loss. "surface cover" were the best "Soil capping" and "percentage contribution of run-off. forbs" were the best predictors of annual No clear relationship between either soil loss and stocking rate, or run-off and stocking rate was apparent in the two experimental blocks, and the differences in soil loss and run-off could not be explained by differences in stocking rate alone. There were however defects in the experimental design which invalidated the assumption that the stocking ~ate diffe~entia1 management blocks would inc~ease with time. between the two Because of the above deficiency, an a1te~native study a~ea on the weste~n bounda~y fence, which allowed fo~ pai~ed sampling sites on eithe~ side of the fence, was chosen. Ge~lach t~oughs we~e used to measu~e soil loss. The g~eatest va~iabi1ity in soil loss was explained by the position of the plots on the slope ~athe~ than whethe~ the plots we~e in UGR o~ in adjacent KwaZu1u. Simi1a~ly, diffe~ences in topog~aphy, ~athe~ than diffe~ences in 1anduse, exe~ted an ove~~iding effect on A-ho~izon depth, he~bage accumulation and g~ass species ~ichness. Conside~ing the ~esu1ts obtained, the opinion that a noninte~ventionist policy would lead to a decline in vegetation p~oductivity and to a 10ng-te~m ~eduction in species dive~sity appea~s to be unfounded. Finally, based on the data collected and on a ~eview of cu~~ent scientific 1ite~atu~e, changes to the Natal Pa~ks Boa~d soils policy and objectives a~e suggested, and the objectives a~e t~ans1ated into ope~ationa1 management goals. / Thesis (Ph.D.)-University of Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 1988.

Thesis (M. Sc. (Zoology and Entomology))--Rhodes University, 2006.

The permanent coresidence of males within a troop is unusual but occurs in vervet monkeys. Several hypotheses have been projected to explain the coexistence of male vervets (predation risk, breeding season length) but these hypotheses fall short in explaining the multimale nature of vervet monkeys. In order to determine the explanation for coresiding males, I collected male behavioural data from two troops over the course of nine months. My dataset was divided into two categories, male-male interactions and female-male interactions. The male-male data indicate that breeding season is the most active time for migration, aggressions and wounds. Coalitions were described for the first time, and affiliative interactions between males highlighted coping tactics of males in regards to their coexistence. The female-male data indicate there was little indication for distinct male or female choice for mating. Specifically, olfactory information appears to lower successful copulations of males, and female resistance also decreased successful copulations. Grooming was not a commodity traded for mating access. Male dominance was not correlated with mating success, and females seem to express their preference for sexual partners. The large cohort of males of my troops appears to alter behaviours observed at other sites. The maintenance of male-female associations after breeding season suggests that males may be preparing for next breeding season, and males may co-reside for breeding purposes. / xiii, 123 leaves : ill. maps ; 29 cm

This study explored the organizing principles of female sociality in free-ranging vervet monkeys (Chlorocebus aethiops) inhabiting the Klein Karoo, South Africa. Females groomed more than males, grooming peaked at the end of the day and less grooming occurred during the mating season. Although females competed over food, they did not compete over grooming partners, rarely formed coalitions and did not trade grooming against other activities. Instead, they maintained grooming whilst trading between feeding and resting and feeding and moving. Despite seasonal shifts in food competition, grooming was not traded for tolerance and there was an upper limit to cohort size before clique size declined. Inter-population comparisons revealed no troop size effects on clique size, aggression and competition over high-ranking grooming partners. The rarity of coalitions suggests coalitions are unlikely to be a central component of female relationships. / xiii, 162 leaves : ill., maps ; 29 cm

Contemporary and historical studies of the flora of the Hluhluwe Game Reserve (HGR), have emphasised the woody component whilst little work has been performed on the herbaceous vegetation. This is particularly true with regard to the responses of grasses to historical fire and bush clearing. This study attempted to elucidate some of these responses. Of all the variables considered in this study, woody cover, altitude, the number of fire events, geological and soil parent material are the most important affecting the abundance of grasses in this reserve. Most of these variables are not independent in their effects on grass abundance, with varying degrees of correlation between each other. Certain species appear to be restricted to particular geological substrates. Along with successional changes in the composition and cover of the woody community, due to seemingly inevitable bush encroachment, there is a parallel change in grassland communities in this reserve. In the absence of clearing, numerous fires, higher altitudes, igneous geology and soils derived from igneous parent material delays this succession, whilst sedimentary geology at lower altitudes and fire frequencies accelerates the trend to high woody cover and associated grass species. The grass communities in HGR were shown to be significantly affected by bush clearing and fire. Specifically the number of clearings and fire events, physical bush clearing during 1957 - 1963 and chemical bush clearing during 1968 - 1978. From the responses of species in relation to the various key environmental variables, viz. geological substrate, woody cover and burning and clearing, a model of species response to these variables was developed. With increased fire and bush clearing frequency, the grass communities shift from closed woodland, shade tolerant species through to more open fire climax grassland. These are also more productive communities producing palatable grasses. Validation of aspects of the model were successful - the model having a relatively high predictive capability. Further testing of the model over different substrates and under different clearing regimes is necessary. With regular fires and re-clearing in some bush cleared areas, the vegetation of this reserve should be able to be maintained as productive and diverse grasslands. In the absence of this management, the grass communities will shift towards species associated with woodlands. Bush clearing activities would appear to be most effective over sites on igneous substrate, at higher altitudes, where successional rates are slowest. This is in comparison to sites at lower altitudes over sedimentary geology. / Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of Natal, Durban, 1992.

Shamwari Game Reserve was the first enclosed conservation area in the Eastern Cape Province of South Africa to reintroduce free ranging lions, cheetahs, leopards and wild dogs back into their historic range. At that time (2000 – 2001), little information was available on the ecology and behaviour of these predators in the habitats of the Eastern Cape, and management decisions were based on assumptions and unfounded comparisons with extant populations but from quite different habitats. The aim of this study was therefore to obtain a better understanding of the feeding ecology and space use of the predator guild, and the carrying capacity of Shamwari Game Reserve to enable more informed management decisions. In addition, the reserve is a photographic based tourism venture and understanding both the ecological and financial sustainability of the predator guild was important. The diets of the predators were similar to those reported in other studies; larger predators killed a greater range of prey species than did smaller predators and a small number of prey species made up the majority of the kills. The larger predators had a higher mean kill mass than the smaller species and prey selection was influenced by prey size, prey abundance and prey habitat preference, and risk associated with hunting the species. Diet was flexible and responded to natural and management induced changes in prey abundance. There was a considerable overlap in space use by the lions, cheetahs and leopards with their core areas being centred on and around the Bushmans River. Space use was driven by resource distribution and landscape attributes, and by the presence of other predators of the same or different species. The long term viability of wild dog within the reserve was explored and the results confirmed that there was neither the required space nor the ecological processes and the wild dogs were removed from the reserve. A carrying capacity of the reserve for the predator guild was determined using the Maximum Sustainable Yield method to assess the potential prey species off take and a resultant density of 3.3 to 6.6 lion female equivalent units per 10 000 ha was established. The natural carrying capacity of the reserve with respect to predators will not sustain the tourism objectives and consequently prey supplementation was necessary to maintain predator density at levels high enough to sustain tourism. Under these conditions the large predator guild is still sustainable financially although careful, responsible management is needed to provide ecological sustainability.

A thesis submitted to the Faculty of Science, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, in fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science. / This work describes the coastal grasslands of Mkambati Game Reserve and their suitability for the present large herbivore complement. The initial description makes use of both field survey and quantitative sampling and multivariate analysis which facilitated the production of soil and vegetation maps at tre scale of 1: 10 000. Suitability of these grasslands for herbivores is assessed in terms of both quantity and quality of food available and the present herbivore impact. Local variation in soil type was considerable. Eight standard soil forms were distinguished as well as severaI others previously undescribed. Most of the soils were dystrophic although nutrient 'hot-spots' were common. This determined floristic composition of the various communities to some extent. Three grassland communities and four subcommunities were recognized which contributed 81, 5% to the total area of the reserve. The remaining area comprised forest. wetlands. exposed rock and accommodation camps. Each grassland community was associated with particular ranges of the measured environmental variables. The standing crop of the three communities was high relative to other areas of Southern Africa. Absolute amounts varied seasonally being highest in summer and lowest in winter Partitioning between the phytomass, necromass and litter components also varied seasonally. Total standing crop increased with increasing interval since the last fire. Litter breakdown rates differed between communities and species. Forage quality was poor being lowest in autumn and winter and declining with age. This was probably a result of the dystrophic soils. Crude protein and phosphorus were limiting for several months of the year. Total forage quantity was in excess of the present herbivore needs although availability declined with age and during the non-growing season. However, the poor quality reduced the amount available such that present herbivore impact was low, at all times being less than 9%.. Removal by herbivores was highest several months after a fire when absolute amounts of various nutrients were at a maxinum per unit area. Thereafter it declined to less than 1% with aging of the sward. The implications of the results for management are discussed and future research needs identified. / AC 2018