A dissertation of limited scope submitted to the Faculty of Arts in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the course-work Degree of Master of Arts in the Centre for Recreation and Tourism at the University of Zululand, 2005. / The study was conducted against the background that Ithala Game Reserve has a lot of tourism benefits. These benefits must be shared among the various sectors of the community such as the people who were evicted from Ithala and KZN Nature Conservation Services. The study was aimed at finding out whether these tourism benefits compensate for loss of land. This aim was narrowed down to the following objectives: • To investigate the level of understanding that Ithala people have towards the meaning of tourism. • To identify the criteria and strategy used by authorities to determine the beneficiaries of tourism resources at Ithala Game Reserve. • To determine the level of participation of local people in decision- making concerning tourism related matters. • To examine the level of accessibility to tourism resources of the Ithala area. • To assess the extent to which tourism benefits enhance the livelihood of the people around Ithala Game Reserve. The study hypothesised that: • That the Ithala people have a poor understanding of the meaning of tourism. • That there is no clearly defined criteria and strategy used by authorities to determine the beneficiaries of tourism benefits. • That the Ithala people do not participate actively in decision-making concerning tourism benefits. • That the level of accessibility to tourism resources is relatively restricted among the Ithala community members. • That tourism benefits do enhance the livelihood of the Ithala community in a sustainable manner. Data was collected through the use of sets of questionnaires, which had both open-ended and closed sections. After this data was collected, it was analysed through the use of computer programme, Statistical Package for Social Sciences. This programme was used to formulate frequency tables and to relate variables. There were various findings that were deduced from the responses of all interviewees. It was discovered that the Ithala community has limited knowledge about tourism and its benefits in their area. Such limitation resulted from the fact that for a long time, the Ithala community has been excluded from tourism development initiatives. This community was scattered over a large area after eviction, so they know very little about what is happening in the area. Another stumbling block to access tourism benefits is that the recent arrangements to involve the community in the tourism management are still neatly typed in the Memorandum of Understanding (the legal document that was signed by the Claimants, The Board, NCS), which is not easily accessible to people. People can begin to accept the prevailing situation provided they have sufficient knowledge about tourism. To address the concerns of the community, various recommendations were suggested. These included tourism awareness strategies, consultation and involvement of local people in tourism development initiatives, translation of tourism brochures into Zulu and construction of a cultural village. Once local people begin to grasp the concept of tourism, they will begin to accrue more benefits from this lucrative venture. / National Research Foundation and Department of Labour.

Vervet monkeys (Chlorocebus pygerythrus) are generally described as a territorial species, though variations in territoriality have been observed. This research examined the impact of high population density, large group sizes and extensively overlapping home ranges on the expression of territoriality in a population of vervet monkeys. Over a period of eighteen months, data were collected on three large troops of vervet monkeys (PTN = 31, RBMN = 39, RSTN = 57) on the Samara Game Reserve, South Africa. I examined the spatial dynamics demonstrated in this population, assed the extent and use of home range overlap and examined the occurrence of intertroop encounters in relation to mate defence, resource defence and home range defence. The home ranges of the troops in this study population overlap substantially, and overlap areas are exploited extensively. The frequency of occurrence of intertroop encounters does not increase in the mating season, nor is there evidence of the defence of particular food patches or home range defence. The findings from this thesis emphasize the importance of examining the expression of territoriality of a population within the context of its environment. / xvi, 125 leaves : ill. ; 29 cm

Narrow riparian woodlands along non-perennial streams have made it possible for vervet monkeys to penetrate the semi-arid karoo ecosystem of South Africa, while artificial water points have more recently allowed these populations to colonize much more marginal habitat away from natural water sources. In order to determine the sequelae of life in these narrow, linear woodlands for historically 'natural' populations, I determined the size of troops in relation to their reliance on natural and artificial water sources and collected detailed data from two river-centred troops on activity, diet and ranging behaviour over an annual cycle. These data indicate that river-centred troops were distinctive primarily for their large group sizes and, consequently, their large adult cohorts, and the extent of home range overlap in what is regarded as a territorial species. While large group size carried the corollary of increased day journey length and longer estimated interbirth intervals, there was little other indication of ecological stress. Specifically, the rate of predation appears to be lower than observed at other sites. Predation encounters here, encourage the use of predator vigilance rather than influencing the use of space within the habitat. The high density of Acacia karoo, which accounted for a third of annual foraging effort in what was a relatively depauperate floristic habitat, allows for an adequate energy intake for groups of this size. I ascribed the large group size and home range overlap to the inability of groups to undergo fission. / xiii, 79 leaves : ill., maps ; 29 cm

The increase of woody vegetation (also known as bush or shrub encroachment) in savannas has become of global concern to conservationists and rangeland managers alike. Bush encroachment has been associated with a decrease in rageland palatability. In addition, the increase in woody biomass has consequences for climate change, carbon sequestration, rangeland hydrology and nutrient cycling. As a result of these large changes in ecosystem functioning with bush encroachment, biodiversity may be threatened. Fire is considered to be one of the most important management tools used to control woody biomass in savannas. However, despite the use of fire in Ithala Game Reserve, areas have become encroached. This thesis assesses the role of fire in bush encroachment in Ithala Game Reserve. I start this thesis with a discussion of the bottom-up (water, nutrients, and light) and topdown (fire and herbivory) ecosystem components in the literature review. This sets the foundation for an understanding of the factors that affect savanna tree:grass ratios for the rest of this thesis. In addition the review discusses the potential effects of climate change on savanna tree:grass ratios. Recently, it has been proposed that increasing atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations result in an increased competitive ability for C3 woody plants against C4 grasses. Many models have been produced to explain savanna dynamics. By assessing the role of fire in Ithala Game Reserve, its functioning is assessed in light of the current issues of bush encroachment. Textural analysis is a remote sensing technique that has been used to detect changes in woody vegetation using aerial photographs. Textural analysis was used to assess changes in woody vegetation cover and density from 1943 (earliest period for which aerial photographs were available for the study area) to 1969, 1990 and 2007 in Ithala Game Reserve (IGR). Field surveys were performed to assess the effects of the fire regime in IGR on woody vegetation structure and composition. Transects were performed in areas with different fire frequencies. The effects of fire frequency were compared between similar vegetation communities. Textural analysis showed that woody vegetation cover (+32.5%) and density (657.9 indiv. ha-1) increased from 1943 to 2007. Importantly, in some areas of IGR, the suppression of fire led to the rapid invasion of woody plants from 1990 to 2007. Field studies demonstrated the importance of fire in controlling woody vegetation in IGR. The densities of the encroachers, Dichrostachys cinerea and Acacia karroo were resistant to annual burns. However, the height of these deciduous microphyllous woody encroachers was reduced by more frequent fires. Following the suppression of fire, these trees grew taller and their negative impact on the herbaceous layer increased. Consequently, fuel loads (grassy biomass) declined and prevented the use of frequent and intense fires by management. The reduction in fire frequency allowed the invasion of woody evergreen macrophyllous species. Continued development of fire-resistant patches of evergreen macrophyllous vegetation will further reduce the effectiveness of fire in controlling bush encroachment. To control bush encroachment in IGR and the consequential loss of biodiversity, an intermediate fire frequency (one burn every 2 to 4 years) is required. Burns also need to be hot enough to increase the current rate of topkill. Management should act to optimize the accumulation of grassy biomass to fuel fires. / Thesis (M.Sc.)-Unversity of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2010.

The main aim of this study was to classify and describe the plant communities in the home range of white rhinoceros in order to understand the animal seasonal foraging ecology. To provide a detailed habitat description, forty sample plots were stratified randomly. A TWINSPAN classification, refined by Braun-Blanquet procedures, was carried out on the Viewpoint section of the reserve. Ten plant communities, grouped into five major community types, were identified. The veld condition and ecological carrying capacity in these communities were measured, stating an abundance of food on long grass while the short grass equal the number of short grass feeders. A number of behavioural aspects such as activity data, home range utilization and dietary usage were examined. Statistical methods such as the Spearman rank-order correlation, Wilcoxon sign test and Student T-test were used on rhino data. The difference in usage of the home range during wet and dry seasons was insignificant. / Environmental Sciences / M.Sc. (Environmental Management)

The cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus) has experienced a drastic decline in numbers over the last 20 years globally and is currently listed as vulnerable by the International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN). In South Africa, there are only an estimated 763 free-ranging cheetahs and conflict with humans is arguably the most significant reason for this low number. The aim of my study was to determine the population size and demographic characteristics of the cheetah population within the Timbavati Private Nature Reserve (TPNR), South Africa, and to contribute to a better understanding of cheetah space use and habitat selection. The research was conducted on TPNR between November 2009 and June 2011 and I used a photographic survey to assess cheetah population size and demographic characteristics. Location data was obtained by collaring two adult male cheetahs with GPS/GSM collars and ad hoc sightings data from across the reserve for an adult female with cubs and three adolescent females. A relatively high minimum population density of 4.46 cheetahs/100km² was estimated, signifying a relatively healthy cheetah population. The sex ratio data indicated a higher male to female ratio and an average litter size of three cubs. The relatively high cub survival rate and density is promising in terms of the status of species within the area, as the data denote the success and potential persistence of the species. Cheetah home ranges varied between 20.97km² for the female with cubs and 659.65km² for the younger collared male. Season did not appear to be a determining factor in terms of home range sizes for the three social groups within the TPNR. However, the males did show a slight increase in their home range sizes during the dry season when resources where presumably more widespread. My results indicate that the cheetah is an adaptable species, flexible in behaviour and able to tolerate a variety of habitat types. Such knowledge is fundamental for planning and implementing the effective management and conservation of cheetahs in South Africa.

The main aim of this study was to classify and describe the plant communities in the home range of white rhinoceros in order to understand the animal seasonal foraging ecology. To provide a detailed habitat description, forty sample plots were stratified randomly. A TWINSPAN classification, refined by Braun-Blanquet procedures, was carried out on the Viewpoint section of the reserve. Ten plant communities, grouped into five major community types, were identified. The veld condition and ecological carrying capacity in these communities were measured, stating an abundance of food on long grass while the short grass equal the number of short grass feeders. A number of behavioural aspects such as activity data, home range utilization and dietary usage were examined. Statistical methods such as the Spearman rank-order correlation, Wilcoxon sign test and Student T-test were used on rhino data. The difference in usage of the home range during wet and dry seasons was insignificant. / Environmental Sciences / M.Sc. (Environmental Management)

South Africa’s growing elephant populations are concentrated in relatively small enclosed protected areas resulting in the over utilisation of the available food sources. Elephants and other herbivores as well as other natural disturbances such as fires and droughts play an important role in maintaining savannah environments. When these disturbances become too concentrated in a particular area the vegetation composition may be negatively affected. Excessive damage to the vegetation would result from exceeding the capacity of a protected area to provide food resources. The effect of the 120 elephants on the vegetation of Welgevonden Private Game Reserve, is not known. The rugged terrain of this reserve makes it a difficult, time consuming and labour intensive exercise to conduct ground studies. Satellite images can be used as a monitoring tool for vegetation change and improve the quantity and quality of environmental data to be collected significantly, allowing more informed management decision-making. This study evaluated the use of satellite imagery for monitoring elephant induced vegetation change on Welgevonden Private Game Reserve. The LANDSAT Thematic Mapper multispectral images, acquired at two yearly intervals from 1993 until 2007 were used. However, no suitable images were available for the years 1997, 2001 and 2003. A series of vegetation change maps was produced and the distribution of water sources and fire occurrences mapped. The areas of change were then correlated with the spatial distribution of water points and fire occurances, with uncorrelated areas of change. This was analysed using large animal population trends, weather data and management practices. On the visual comparison of the vegetation maps, it was seen that over this time period there was some decrease and thinning of woodland, but the most notable change was the increase of open woodland and decrease in grasslands. Using only the digital change detection for the period 1993 to 2007, a general increase in vegetation cover is seen. But this generalisation is misleading, since comparing the digital change detection to the vegetation maps indicates that while vegetation cover may have increased, significant changes occurred in the vegetation types. Most of the areas of significant change that were identified showed a strong positive correlation with burnt areas. The distribution of the water sources could not be directly linked to the vegetation change although rainfall fluctuations seemed to have accelerated vegetation changes. Years with high game counts, such as 1999, also coincide with very low rainfall making it difficult to differentiate between the effects of heavy utilisation of vegetation and low rainfall. Furthermore, many of the initial vegetation changes could be the result of land use changes due to the introduction of browsers, selective grazers and elephants that allow for more natural utilisation of the vegetation. Remote sensing makes it possible to successfully track changes in vegetation and identify areas of potential elephant induced vegetation change. Vegetation changes caused by disturbances, such as fire and anthropogenic activities, can be accounted for but it is not possible to conclude with a high level of certainty that the further changes seen are solely a result of elephant damage. Further work is required to reliably isolate elephant induced vegetation changes, as well as to establish the effects these changes have on the ecosystem as a whole. / Environmental Sciences / (M. Sc. (Environmetal Sciences))

The focus of this study is the effect of environmental conditions on the social relationships among females in a free-ranging troop of chacma baboons (Papio cynocephalus ursinus), in a southern woodland habitat. The female dominance hierarchy, rank related differential costs and benefits to individuals, and the nature of special relationships between females, were followed. The study was conducted for a total of 18 months during three years, at Mkuzi Game Reserve, Zululand, South-Africa. The study troop occupy a rich woodland habitat with abundant food resources. Visibility under these conditions is poor and the baboons are subjected to leopard predation. Intra-troop competition for food among female primates and its effect on lifetime reproductive success, has been widely stressed to be a major cost for low ranking females. No evidence of competition for food was found among females at Mkuzi. It is suggested that the main cause for mortality may be predation by leopards, and that females compete mainly over a safe spatial position. The following characteristics of female sociality at Mkuzi may support this suggestion: 1. While no indication of rank related feeding behaviour, reproductive success, or 'attractiveness' to others was found, the higher ranking females had more access to central, and thus better protected, spatial positions in the troop. 2. The importance of social associations among females at Mkuzi seems to lie in mutual grooming and protection from predation by the vicinity to each other, and not in coalitionary support. Female associates were thus not necessarily adjacent ranking and probably not kin. 3. Although female dominance hierarchy was usually stable, the lowest ranking adult female has promoted her rank independently, following the disappearance of her only female associate and during her pregnancy, when she was probably subjected to high risk of predation. 4. Following troop fission, most females chose to improve their own rank position by adopting the AYS strategy (Abandon Your immediate Superior in rank), rather than joining associates. It is suggested that the resident males were responsible for the initiation of troop fission, in order to decrease the high cost of sexual competition to them, by reducing the number of males in each daughter troop. High intensity of competition between males was the result of the high female reproductive success. Risk of predation, and therefore the cost to individual females, increased after fission. This study may present an additional accumulating behavioural evidence on adaptations environmental conditions. the of flexibility primates example to of social and to various environmental conditions. / Thesis (Ph.D.)-University of Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 1993.

Terracettes are a widely occurring form of micro-relief found throughout regions displaying various climatic and environmental conditions. Much speculation surrounds the processes responsible for their formation and development. An investigation of these micro-forms, their associated soil physical properties, sustaining mechanisms, and their relationship to slope stability was undertaken in Giant's Castle Game Reserve, KwaZulu - Natal Drakensberg, South Africa. The study showed that relationships between terracette morphology and soil physical properties within the Reserve are few, and that current soil conditions cannot be used to infer process related to terracette formation. However dry bulk density data indicated that soil creep is the dominant formative mechanism within the Reserve. Throughflow at riser surfaces was the dominant sustaining mechanism, with needle ice growth, wind, surfacewash and animal disturbance contributing minor retreat at both treads and risers. Aspect played an important role in determining soil physical characteristics. It was inferred that terracettes imparted stability to the slopes on which they are found, and with continued retreat at both treads and risers the slope was again placed under conditions of instability. / Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 1998.