With the purpose of improving the conservation management of Ithala Game Reserve and other similar reserves, the aims of this study were to determine the reserve's large mammalian herbivores' habitat occupancy, numbers and demographics, to investigate the feasibility of road strip counts as a census method for the same herbivores and to establish what environmental factors influence their habitat occupancy, numbers and demographics. Four years of demographic data were collected by vehicle transects on giraffe, kudu, wildebeest and impala. During the final two years additional positional data, using GPS, were collected on these and the reserve's other large herbivores. Sightings were recorded on the basis of habitat type occupied, a GIS was then used to define area sampled and hence derive habitat occupancy densities. GIS was further used to determine both absolute population sizes and, by over-laying other available GIS data, the relevance of distance to surface water, soil type and degree of slope to species' habitat preferences. Species showed non-random, significant habitat selections broadly in line with established preferences. Deterioration in habitat quality in winter generally lead to changes in habitat selection and the extent and nature of these changes related to the severity of resource pressure for individual species. This in turn was influenced by the species digestive strategy i.e. ruminant versus non-ruminant, grazer versus browser. Generally species showed a dry season move down the slope, moving, in some cases, onto heavier soils. Hartebeest, warthog, wildebeest and impala were strongly attracted to winter grass flushes. Lack of predation may be influencing the habitat selection decisions of impala and giraffe and kudu females, as well as allowing giraffe, wildebeest and impala to attain comparatively high densities. Giraffe density (effectively 1.8 km - 2) was abnormally high and their habitat quality poor, leading to a decline in numbers and low fecundity-related demographics. Wildebeest density (6 km -2) was also abnormally high and this may be instrumental in the poor performance of the rare tsessebe population, which is in decline and shows low fecundity-related demo graphics, increased dry season pressure on other grazers in general and impala 111 unexpectedly preferring browse habitats, rather than grasslands, in the wet season. Wildebeest fecundity declined in response to lower rainfall over the early period of lactation. Herbivores with an open social structure generally showed a dry season decrease in group size, although wildebeest and hartebeest showed, atypically, an Increase. Giraffe, zebra and impala adult sex ratios were comparatively less female biased, probably due to minimal predation. Territorial behaviour, virtually year round by wildebeest bulls and over the rut by impala bulls, imposed spatial sexual segregation between breeding and bachelor herds in these species. Outside of these periods, and generally in species not exhibiting territoriality, social sexual segregation was maintained and appeared to relate to differing activity budgets. Areas of concern for management are highlighted. Numbers results were generally acceptable and the method is proposed as a cost effective alternative in reserves with diverse topography. Underlying environmental determinants of habitat occupancy, numbers and demographics, together with associated annual or seasonal changes, were habitat quality, competition and predation. / Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, 2005.

A dissertation of limited scope submitted to the Faculty of Arts in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the course-work Degree of Master of Arts in the Centre for Recreation and Tourism at the University of Zululand, 2005. / The study was conducted against the background that Ithala Game Reserve has a lot of tourism benefits. These benefits must be shared among the various sectors of the community such as the people who were evicted from Ithala and KZN Nature Conservation Services. The study was aimed at finding out whether these tourism benefits compensate for loss of land. This aim was narrowed down to the following objectives: • To investigate the level of understanding that Ithala people have towards the meaning of tourism. • To identify the criteria and strategy used by authorities to determine the beneficiaries of tourism resources at Ithala Game Reserve. • To determine the level of participation of local people in decision- making concerning tourism related matters. • To examine the level of accessibility to tourism resources of the Ithala area. • To assess the extent to which tourism benefits enhance the livelihood of the people around Ithala Game Reserve. The study hypothesised that: • That the Ithala people have a poor understanding of the meaning of tourism. • That there is no clearly defined criteria and strategy used by authorities to determine the beneficiaries of tourism benefits. • That the Ithala people do not participate actively in decision-making concerning tourism benefits. • That the level of accessibility to tourism resources is relatively restricted among the Ithala community members. • That tourism benefits do enhance the livelihood of the Ithala community in a sustainable manner. Data was collected through the use of sets of questionnaires, which had both open-ended and closed sections. After this data was collected, it was analysed through the use of computer programme, Statistical Package for Social Sciences. This programme was used to formulate frequency tables and to relate variables. There were various findings that were deduced from the responses of all interviewees. It was discovered that the Ithala community has limited knowledge about tourism and its benefits in their area. Such limitation resulted from the fact that for a long time, the Ithala community has been excluded from tourism development initiatives. This community was scattered over a large area after eviction, so they know very little about what is happening in the area. Another stumbling block to access tourism benefits is that the recent arrangements to involve the community in the tourism management are still neatly typed in the Memorandum of Understanding (the legal document that was signed by the Claimants, The Board, NCS), which is not easily accessible to people. People can begin to accept the prevailing situation provided they have sufficient knowledge about tourism. To address the concerns of the community, various recommendations were suggested. These included tourism awareness strategies, consultation and involvement of local people in tourism development initiatives, translation of tourism brochures into Zulu and construction of a cultural village. Once local people begin to grasp the concept of tourism, they will begin to accrue more benefits from this lucrative venture. / National Research Foundation and Department of Labour.

The increase of woody vegetation (also known as bush or shrub encroachment) in savannas has become of global concern to conservationists and rangeland managers alike. Bush encroachment has been associated with a decrease in rageland palatability. In addition, the increase in woody biomass has consequences for climate change, carbon sequestration, rangeland hydrology and nutrient cycling. As a result of these large changes in ecosystem functioning with bush encroachment, biodiversity may be threatened. Fire is considered to be one of the most important management tools used to control woody biomass in savannas. However, despite the use of fire in Ithala Game Reserve, areas have become encroached. This thesis assesses the role of fire in bush encroachment in Ithala Game Reserve. I start this thesis with a discussion of the bottom-up (water, nutrients, and light) and topdown (fire and herbivory) ecosystem components in the literature review. This sets the foundation for an understanding of the factors that affect savanna tree:grass ratios for the rest of this thesis. In addition the review discusses the potential effects of climate change on savanna tree:grass ratios. Recently, it has been proposed that increasing atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations result in an increased competitive ability for C3 woody plants against C4 grasses. Many models have been produced to explain savanna dynamics. By assessing the role of fire in Ithala Game Reserve, its functioning is assessed in light of the current issues of bush encroachment. Textural analysis is a remote sensing technique that has been used to detect changes in woody vegetation using aerial photographs. Textural analysis was used to assess changes in woody vegetation cover and density from 1943 (earliest period for which aerial photographs were available for the study area) to 1969, 1990 and 2007 in Ithala Game Reserve (IGR). Field surveys were performed to assess the effects of the fire regime in IGR on woody vegetation structure and composition. Transects were performed in areas with different fire frequencies. The effects of fire frequency were compared between similar vegetation communities. Textural analysis showed that woody vegetation cover (+32.5%) and density (657.9 indiv. ha-1) increased from 1943 to 2007. Importantly, in some areas of IGR, the suppression of fire led to the rapid invasion of woody plants from 1990 to 2007. Field studies demonstrated the importance of fire in controlling woody vegetation in IGR. The densities of the encroachers, Dichrostachys cinerea and Acacia karroo were resistant to annual burns. However, the height of these deciduous microphyllous woody encroachers was reduced by more frequent fires. Following the suppression of fire, these trees grew taller and their negative impact on the herbaceous layer increased. Consequently, fuel loads (grassy biomass) declined and prevented the use of frequent and intense fires by management. The reduction in fire frequency allowed the invasion of woody evergreen macrophyllous species. Continued development of fire-resistant patches of evergreen macrophyllous vegetation will further reduce the effectiveness of fire in controlling bush encroachment. To control bush encroachment in IGR and the consequential loss of biodiversity, an intermediate fire frequency (one burn every 2 to 4 years) is required. Burns also need to be hot enough to increase the current rate of topkill. Management should act to optimize the accumulation of grassy biomass to fuel fires. / Thesis (M.Sc.)-Unversity of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2010.

The changes in plant quality and availability in space and time present a substantial problem to mammalian herbivores. As a result, these herbivores need to alter their foraging behaviour to maximize their energy gain at both small (plant level) and large (landscape level) scales. A megaherbivore, the African elephant (Loxodonta africana), has been shown to be selective in its foraging choices at both of these scales. Furthermore, the ratio of palatability:defences (e.g. fibre and total polyphenols) has been highlighted as an important determinant of habitat selection in elephants. The elephants in Ithala Game Reserve (IGR) frequently leave IGR during the wet season and forage outside the reserve. However, they predominantly feed on the low-nutrient granite soils of the reserve and return to a high-nutrient area with dolerite soils during the dry season. In an attempt to understand these seasonal movements, I focused on how the small-scale foraging decisions of the elephants lead to large-scale seasonal movements in IGR, KwaZulu-Natal. Plant availability was determined seasonally for seven target species across four areas in the reserve. Crude protein, fibre, energy and total polyphenols as well as the ratios of palatability:digestion-reducing substances were analysed in the wet and dry seasons. All factors and their interactions were significant in a MANOVA. Consequently, I employed a dimension-reducing Principal Components Analysis (PCA) to better understand the factors of greatest importance. The PCA highlighted four of the six most important factors to be the ratios of palatability:digestion-reducing substances. The other two important variables were total polyphenols (negative effect) and crude protein (positive effect). At small spatial scales, I found that the elephants were selective in their decisions, especially during the dry season. For example, the increased inclusion of the principal tree species Acacia nilotica from 2.9% in the wet season to 39.3% during the dry season appears to be a result of a decline in total polyphenols and fibre during the dry season. At large spatial scales, the elephants moved back into IGR from the low-nutrient granite soils in the east in response to an increase in forage quality in the west as the quality declined in the east at the same time. However, it is unclear as to why the elephants are leaving the reserve during the wet season. Some possible explanations for this are discussed.Key-words: acid detergent fibre, crude protein, Loxodonta africana, neutral detergent fibre, total polyphenols, plant part quality. / Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2013.

As the dry season progresses across southern Africa, the availability and quality of food declines for large herbivores. Female white rhinos compensate for these declines by expanding and/or shifting their home ranges. These changes may be to incorporate habitat types that contain high quality food or quite simply more food. To determine the factors that drive these seasonal changes in home ranges, I focused on dry season changes in the availability and quality of grass in habitats utilised by white rhinos in the Ithala Game Reserve, South Africa. I expected that if food quality was the main driver, white rhinos would follow optimal foraging principles and incorporate habitat types with the highest nutritional quality into their dry season home ranges. Alternatively, due to their large body size (>1000 kg) and thus ability to survive on low quality food, they may rather incorporate habitat types with high food availability. In contrast to previous studies, I found that during the dry season female white rhinos did not increase the size of their home ranges, but rather shifted their home range boundaries. This resulted in individuals increasing the amount of Bushveld and decreasing the amount of Wooded Grasslands within their dry season home ranges. When I explored the different factors that could explain these patterns, I found that changes in the crude protein content of grass was the key factor driving the incorporation and exclusion of habitat types in the home ranges. During the dry season, white rhinos incorporated the habitat that had the smallest seasonal reduction in crude protein content, while excluding the one with the largest decrease in crude protein. As a result, my results suggest that the search for high quality best explains the seasonal home range shifts of female white rhinos in the Ithala Game Reserve. / Thesis (M.Sc.Ecology)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2013.

The Okavango Delta is an extremely dynamic system with variable vegetation comprised of permanent swamps, seasonal swamps, dry islands, floodplains and dry grassland, savanna and woodland. The system is largely driven by the interaction between fire and the annual flood, which filters down from the Okavango River catchments in Angola. While extensive research has been conducted on the flood-driven vegetation little is known about the dry woodland and savanna regions bordering these flood-driven habitats. A taxonomic classification of woody species composition resulted in eleven vegetation types. These data were then reanalyzed in terms of woody species morphology allowing these eleven vegetation types to be grouped into four functional response groups in order to provide a platform for improving the understanding of how dry woodland and savannas interact with the environment. These four groups were the savanna group mixed thornveld and the three woodland groups; mixed broadleaf woodland, shrub mopane woodland and tall mopane woodland. Burning in mixed thornveld and mixed broadleaf woodland was found to decrease woody species density and grass fuel loads and could be used for grazing management to remove unpalatable growth and improve grass species composition, while burning in shrub mopane woodland and mixed mopane woodland merely decreased the woody understory and is not recommended. Utilization dominated by grazing livestock resulted in overutilization of the grass sward leading to bush encroachment in both mixed thornveld and shrub mopane woodland, while utilization by goats alone resulted in underutilization of the grass sward and a dominance of herbaceous annuals. Livestock utilization had no effect on the occurrence of Pecheul-loeschea leubnitziae, a shrubby pioneer previously thought to be an indicator of overgrazing, however extensive P. leubnitziae cover was associated with a sward dominated by shade-tolerant grasses with low forage quality. Shrub mopane woodland and tall mopane woodland appear to be more stable vegetation states than mixed broadleaf woodland and mixed thornveld being less vulnerable to colonization by pioneer species and alteration as a result of utilization or environmental factors. For this reason management and monitoring of mixed thornveld and mixed broadleaf woodland is essential to prevent vegetation degradation and to ensure optimal forage availability for both livestock and wildlife. / Thesis (Ph.D.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2012.