The temporal complexities of anthropogenic Global Climate Change (GCC) force us to extend our moral deliberations beyond what appear to be straightforward, contemporary issues to include the interests of future generations. The Karoo hydraulic fracturing debate is a case in point. The ethical debate thus far has focused on the present-day environmental aspects of Shell’s limited exploratory drilling proposal using hydraulic fracturing technology; but the shale-gas reserves that are believed to underlie the Karoo could assist in mitigating South Africa’s significant carbon emissions, the main contributor to anthropogenic GCC. Thus, I argue that the actual ethical debate is whether to allow gas exploration over the Karoo or to disallow the entire possibility of exploiting any gas reserves that may have been found. A consequentialist weighing up of the respective potential harms to all of the morally-considerable interests involved, including future generations, makes clear that not only is allowing exploration of the Karoo the morally correct decision, but it is ethically obligatory to do so.

The goal of oil and gas exploration using seismic methods is to accurately locate geological structures that could host such reserves. As the search for these resources tends towards more complex regions, it is necessary to develop methods to extract as much information as possible from the seismic data acquired. Prestack depth imaging is a seismic processing technique that has the capability to produce a realistic depth image of geological structures in complex situations. However, improvements to this technique are required to increase the accuracy of the final depth image and ensure that the targets are accurately located. Although prestack depth imaging possesses the ability to produce a depth image of the Earth, it does have its disadvantages. Three problematic areas in depth imaging are: the computer run times (and hence costs) are excessively high; the success of depth migration is highly dependent upon the accuracy of the interval velocity model; and seismic multiples often obscure the primary reflection events representative of the subsurface geology. Velocity model building accounts for most of the effort in prestack depth imaging and is also responsible for the likelihood of success. However, the more effort that is expended on this process, the greater the cost of producing the required depth section. In addition, multiples remain a problem in complex depth imaging since many attenuation techniques are based assumptions that may only be approximately correct and in addition require a priori information. The Kirchhoff method is considered to be the workhorse in industry for prestack depth imaging. It is a simple and flexible technique to implement, and usually produces acceptable images at a small fraction of the cost of the other depth migration methods. / However, it is highly dependent on a method for calculating the traveltimes that are required for mapping data from the prestack domain to the output depth section. In addition, it is highly dependent on the accuracy of the interval velocity model. Multiples can also be problematic in complex geological scenarios. To improve the quality of the depth section obtained from Kirchhoff depth imaging, these three issues are considered in this thesis. This thesis took on the challenge of developing new techniques for (a) improving the accuracy and efficiency of traveltimes calculated for use in Kirchhoff prestack depth imaging, (b) building the interval velocity model, and (c) multiple attenuation in complex geological areas. Three new techniques were developed and tested using a variety of numerical models. A new traveltime computation method for simulating seismic multiple reflections was tested and compared with a Promax© finite-difference traveltime solver. The same method was also used to improve the computational efficiency whilst retaining traveltime accuracy. This was demonstrated by application to the well-known Marmousi velocity model and a velocity model obtained from analysis of data from the North West Shelf of Western Australia. / A new interval velocity model building technique that utilises the information contained in multiple events was also implemented and tested successfully using a variety of numerical models. Finally, a new processing sequence for multiple attenuation in the prestack depth domain was designed and tested with promising results being observed. Improved accuracy in the depth image can be obtained by combining the three techniques I have developed. These techniques enable this to be achieved by firstly improving traveltime accuracy and computation efficiency. These benefits are then combined with a more accurate interval velocity model and data with a minimal problematic multiple content to produce an accurate depth image. These new techniques for Kirchhoff depth imaging are capable of producing a depth section with improved accuracy, and with increased efficiency, that will aid in the process of seismic interpretation.

I estimate overpressure in a seismic cross-section along a 12km traverse associated with a 2D/4C OBC line in the Columbus Basin, Trinidad, West Indies, where shallow gas reduces both data quality and apparent seismic velocity for P-waves, using a modified Eaton's equation for PS-waves. Pore pressure prediction using the modified Eaton's method involves velocity analysis, conversion of the stacking velocities to interval velocities via the Dix's equation, converting the interval velocity trends to pressures and mudweights, and comparison of the predictions to 3 wells surrounding the seismic line. In the presence of shallow gas, the magnitude and areal extent of seismically derived P-wave and PS-wave velocity deviates from regional trends along the seismic line. PS-waves show a more accurate areal extent of velocity deviation due to overpressure than the P-wave, which is also affected by the presence of shallow gas. I verify my derived velocities and predicted-pressure values using sonic log data and observed pressure from 3 wells. Direct comparison between the sonic-derived velocities and the seismic-derived velocities shows that shallow gas reduces P-wave velocity, and that PS-wave velocity is less affected. Pressure prediction is verified using mudweights and formation tests from well logs and drilling reports. I find pressure predictions associated with P-waves, especially in areas of shallow gas are less reliable than for pressure predictions using PS-waves. I conclude that PS-wave velocity provides a superior map of overpressure in this region in areas with shallow gas clouds. / text

On 28 July 2010, the Nigerian Federal Executive Council approved January 1, 2012 as the effective date for the convergence of Nigerian Statement of Accounting Standards (SAS) or Nigerian GAAP (NG-GAAP) with International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS). By this pronouncement, all publicly listed companies and significant public interest entities in Nigeria were statutorily required to issue IFRS based financial statements for the year ended December, 2012. This study investigates the impact of the adoption of IFRS on the financial statements of Nigerian listed Oil and Gas entities using six years of data which covers three years before and three years after IFRS adoption in Nigeria and other African countries. First, the study evaluates the impact of IFRS adoption on the Exploration and Evaluation (E&E) expenditures of listed Oil and Gas companies. Second, it examines the impact of IFRS adoption on the provision for decommissioning of Oil and Gas installations and environmental rehabilitation expenditures. Third, the study analyses the impact of the adoption of IFRS on the average daily Crude Oil production cost per Barrel. Fourth, it examines the extent to which the adoption and implementation of IFRS affects the Key Performance Indicators (KPIs) of listed Oil and Gas companies. The study further explores the impact of IFRS adoption on the contractual relationships between Nigerian Government and Oil and Gas companies in terms of Joint Ventures (JVs) and Production Sharing Contracts (PSCs) as it relates to taxes, royalties, bonuses and Profit Oil Split. A Paired Samples t-test, Wilcoxon Signed Rank test and Gray’s (Gray, 1980) Index of Conservatism analyses were conducted simultaneously where the accounting numbers, financial ratios and industry specific performance measures of GAAP and IFRS were computed and analysed and the significance of the differences of the mean, median and Conservatism Index values were compared before and after IFRS adoption. Questionnaires were then administered to the key stakeholders in the adoption and implementation of IFRS and the responses collated and analysed. The results of the analyses reveal that most of the accounting numbers, financial ratios and industry specific performance measures examined changed significantly as a result of the transition from GAAP to IFRS. The E&E expenditures and the mean cost of Crude Oil production per barrel of Oil and Gas companies increased significantly. The GAAP values of inventories, GPM, ROA, Equity and TA were also significantly different from the IFRS values. However, the differences in the provision for decommissioning expenditures were not statistically significant. Gray’s (Gray, 1980) Conservatism Index shows that Oil and Gas companies were more conservative under GAAP when compared to the IFRS regime. The Questionnaire analyses reveal that IFRS based financial statements are of higher quality, easier to prepare and present to management and easier to compare among competitors across the Oil and Gas sector but slightly more difficult to audit compared to GAAP based financial statements. To my knowledge, this is the first empirical research to investigate the impact of IFRS adoption on the financial statements of listed Oil and Gas companies. The study will therefore make an enormous contribution to academic literature and body of knowledge and void the existing knowledge gap regarding the impact and implications of IFRS adoption on the financial statements of Oil and Gas companies.

Magister Legum - LLM / The objective of this study is to analyse the law relating to exploration and production of oil and gas in Tanzania in relation to the protection of FDI. The analysis will be based on the international standards for the protection of FDI. Some of these standards are contained in international instruments and some of them have attained the status of customary international law. Examples of such standards include: Fair and Equitable Treatment (FET), Full Protection and Security (FPS), non-arbitrariness and non-discrimination, among others. Some international instruments to be referred to include the 1992 World Bank Guidelines on Treatment of FDI and the CERDS.

Oil and gas exploration conducted in the 1970s left behind a legacy of abandoned well sites in the Mackenzie Delta region of northern Canada, including several in the Kendall Island Migratory Bird Sanctuary and surrounding areas. Evidence of 30 year-old well sites is present in the form of drilling mud sumps, which are mounds of disturbed tundra that contain frozen drilling-wastes. One to two years after the wells were decommissioned some of the sites were seeded with non-native grass species and fertilized to test whether these treatments could accelerate vegetation recovery and prevent erosion. The main objective of this research was to examine the long-term impact of post-disturbance seeding treatments on the vegetation recovery of drilling mud sumps.<p> Surveys of vegetation composition and environmental conditions at 12 sump sites (6 seeded and 6 unseeded) showed that, after over 30 years of recovery, seeded sumps in the Mackenzie Delta did not significantly differ from those left for natural recovery. However, seeded and previously introduced grasses <i>Festuca rubra</i> and <i>Poa pratensis</i> were found on both seeded and unseeded sumps. The undisturbed surrounding tundra seems to be resistant to invasion by these introduced grasses. However, these species could become invasive in the future, particularly in the context of warming in the North and increasing anthropogenic disturbance. The results of this study contribute valuable information on the long-term effects of revegetation treatments that is critical for making informed management decisions about the rehabilitation of industrial disturbances in the Arctic.

Oil and gas exploration conducted in the 1970s left behind a legacy of abandoned well sites in the Mackenzie Delta region of northern Canada, including several in the Kendall Island Migratory Bird Sanctuary and surrounding areas. Evidence of 30 year-old well sites is present in the form of drilling mud sumps, which are mounds of disturbed tundra that contain frozen drilling-wastes. One to two years after the wells were decommissioned some of the sites were seeded with non-native grass species and fertilized to test whether these treatments could accelerate vegetation recovery and prevent erosion. The main objective of this research was to examine the long-term impact of post-disturbance seeding treatments on the vegetation recovery of drilling mud sumps.<p> Surveys of vegetation composition and environmental conditions at 12 sump sites (6 seeded and 6 unseeded) showed that, after over 30 years of recovery, seeded sumps in the Mackenzie Delta did not significantly differ from those left for natural recovery. However, seeded and previously introduced grasses <i>Festuca rubra</i> and <i>Poa pratensis</i> were found on both seeded and unseeded sumps. The undisturbed surrounding tundra seems to be resistant to invasion by these introduced grasses. However, these species could become invasive in the future, particularly in the context of warming in the North and increasing anthropogenic disturbance. The results of this study contribute valuable information on the long-term effects of revegetation treatments that is critical for making informed management decisions about the rehabilitation of industrial disturbances in the Arctic.

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Gas exploration and production at sea and on land is a recent phenomenon in South Africa. The reason for the sudden interest in gas exploration and production on land is that it may prove to be a solution to the need for cleaner forms of energy and provides the possibility for South Africa to move away from coal-based energy. In order to achieve this transition while keeping economic development intact, South Africa is in need of a “greener” option. Gas is considered the most environmentally friendly fossil fuel and therefore provides South Africa with this much needed “greener” option. The uncertainty about the nature and extent of the environmental impacts regarding gas exploration and production suggests that an efficient and effective energy and environmental law and policy framework is still needed to regulate onshore and offshore gas exploration and production during all phases of its life cycle. It furthermore requires of the authorities that they establish and enhance environmental protection and sustainability during all gas exploration and production operations in order to ensure that the environmental impacts that may occur during such operations are addressed in a holistic and integrated manner. This study focuses on conventional gas. South Africa’s energy and environmental law and policy framework that regulates gas exploration does not cover the entire life cycle of onshore and offshore gas activities. It is of paramount importance that the current fragmentation in the country’s existing energy and environmental regulatory framework be addressed and that a sufficient environmental governance regime, as envisaged in this study, is established. This will enable the administering agents to actively promote and maintain the welfare of the people, the ecosystems, the essential ecological processes and the biodiversity of South Africa, while promoting the utilisation of living natural resources on a sustainable basis to the benefit of all South Africans, present and future, as pledged in the Constitution of the Republic of South Africa, 1996. / LLM (Environmental Law and Governance), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2014

Gas exploration and production at sea and on land is a recent phenomenon in South Africa. The reason for the sudden interest in gas exploration and production on land is that it may prove to be a solution to the need for cleaner forms of energy and provides the possibility for South Africa to move away from coal-based energy. In order to achieve this transition while keeping economic development intact, South Africa is in need of a “greener” option. Gas is considered the most environmentally friendly fossil fuel and therefore provides South Africa with this much needed “greener” option. The uncertainty about the nature and extent of the environmental impacts regarding gas exploration and production suggests that an efficient and effective energy and environmental law and policy framework is still needed to regulate onshore and offshore gas exploration and production during all phases of its life cycle. It furthermore requires of the authorities that they establish and enhance environmental protection and sustainability during all gas exploration and production operations in order to ensure that the environmental impacts that may occur during such operations are addressed in a holistic and integrated manner. This study focuses on conventional gas. South Africa’s energy and environmental law and policy framework that regulates gas exploration does not cover the entire life cycle of onshore and offshore gas activities. It is of paramount importance that the current fragmentation in the country’s existing energy and environmental regulatory framework be addressed and that a sufficient environmental governance regime, as envisaged in this study, is established. This will enable the administering agents to actively promote and maintain the welfare of the people, the ecosystems, the essential ecological processes and the biodiversity of South Africa, while promoting the utilisation of living natural resources on a sustainable basis to the benefit of all South Africans, present and future, as pledged in the Constitution of the Republic of South Africa, 1996. / LLM (Environmental Law and Governance), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2014